PARTICLES

2775

ἀλλά , a strongly adversative conjunction (stronger than δέ) connects sentences and clauses, and corresponds pretty closely to but; at times ἀλλά need not or cannot be translated (2781 b). In form (but with changed accent) ἀλλά was originally the same wor<*> as the accusative neuter plural ἄλλα other things used adverbially = on the other hand. ἀλλά marks opposition, contrast, protest, dif<*> ference, objection, or limitation; and is thus used both where one notion entirely excludes another and where two notions are no<*> mutually exclusive. ἀλλά is often freely repeated in successive clauses.

2776

The Antecedent Statement is Negative.—In its simplest use ἀλλ<*> introduces a positive statement after a negative clause. Thus, οὐκ ἀνδρὸς ὅρκο<*> πίστις, ἀλλ᾽ ὅρκων ἀνήρ his oath is not the warrant of a man, but the man is war rant of his oath A. fr. 394, οὐ γὰρ κραυγῇ ἀλλὰ σῑγῇ ὡς ἀνυστὸν . . . προσῇσαν fo<*> they came on, not with shouts, but with as little noise as possible X. A. 1.8.11.

a. After a question implying a negative answer or a question to be refute<*> ἀλλά may have the force of (nay) rather, on the contrary. Thus, τί δεῖ σε ἰένα . . .; ἀλλὰ ἄλλους πέμψον what's the need of your going? Nay rather send oth<*> ers X. A. 4.6.19. Here ἀλλ᾽ ου᾽ (μή) has the force of and not rather (2781 b) as τίδεῖ ἐμβαλεῖν λόγον περὶ τούτου, ἀλλ᾽ οὐχὶ προειπεῖν ὅτι οὕτω ποιήσεις; why is i<*> necessary to propose a discussion about this and not rather announce that you will have it so? X. C. 2.2.19.

2777

After a negative clause, or a question implying a negative answer ἀλλά, or more commonly the colloquial ἀλλ᾽ ἤ, may mean except, the combination being equivalent either to ἀλλά or to ἤ. In the preceding clause a form of ἄλλο or ἕτερος is often expressed. Thus,

, (here ἀλλ᾽ ἤ is detached from οὐδέν) τίνα ἄλλον ἔχουσι λόγον βοηθοῦντες ἐμοὶ ἀλλ᾽ ἢ τὸν ὀρθόν κτλ.; what other reason<*> have they for supporting me except the true reason, etc.? P. A. 34b.

a. Distinguish the use of ἀλλ᾽ ἤ except (= εἰ μή) in τὸ γοῦν σημεῖον ἕτερον φαί νεται, ἀλλ᾽ ἢ οὐ καθορῶ the device at any rate appears different, unless I can't se<*> Ar. Eq. 953.

2778

οὐδὲν ἀλλ᾽ ἤ nothing but is also used elliptically, apparently by a<*> original suppression of a form of ποιῶ or γίγνομαι; in effect, however, the phras<*> has acquired a purely adverbial sense (merely). Thus, διεφθάρμεθα . . . ὑπ᾽ ἀνδρῶ οὐδὲν ἀλλ᾽ ἢ φενᾱκίζειν δυναμένων we have been ruined by men who are able (to do nothing except deceive (i.e. able merely to deceive) I. 8.36.

a. With the above use compare οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἤ nothing else than, used without, and with, ellipse; as οἱ μύ̄ριοι ἱππεῖς οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἢ μύ̄ριοί εἰσιν ἄνθρωποι your ten thousand horse are nothing more (else) than ten thousand men X. A. 3.2.18, οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἢ πόλιν τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀπόλειπων ἕκαστος doing nothing else than each abandoning his own city T. 2.16. So also οὐδὲν ἄλλο . . . ἤ D. 8.27. Cp. ἄλλο οὐδὲν ἤ , as in ἄλλο οὐδὲν ἢ ἐκ γῆς ἐναυμάχουν they did nothing else than conduct ( = they practically conducted) a sea-fight from the land T. 4.14. Cp. 946, 2652.

2779

The origin of ἀλλ᾽ ἤ is disputed, some scholars regarding ἀλλ᾽ as ἀλλά (originally ἄλλα, 2775), while others derive ἀλλ᾽ directly from ἄλλο, which is thought to have lost its force and consequently its accent. In some passages the Mss. do not distinguish between ἀλλ᾽ and ἄλλ᾽; and ἀλλ᾽ ἤ and ἄλλο ἤ differ only slightly in meaning. In some of the above cases ἀλλ᾽ has an adjectival force, in some it hovers between an adjective and a conjunction, and in others it clearly has become a conjunction.

2780

After a comparative (μᾶλλον, τὸ πλέον) in a negative clause ἀλλά has the force of as. Thus, καὶ ἔστιν ὁ πόλεμος οὐχ ὅπλων τὸ πλέον ἀλλὰ δαπάνης and war is not so much (lit. more) a matter of arms as (but rather) of money T. 1.83. Here the clause with ἀλλά is more emphatic than if ἤ had been used. Cp. “there needed no more but to advance one step”: Steele.

2781

The Antecedent Statement is Affirmative.—ἀλλά is sometimes found after an affirmative statement.

a. The antecedent clause often has a concessive force, and frequently takes μέν (2900). Thus,

.

b. ἀλλ᾽ ου᾽ (μή) after an affirmative statement often has the force of and not, and not rather, instead of (sometimes with a touch of irony). Thus, ἐκεῖθεν ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐνθένδε ἡρπάσθη she was carried off from there and not (or simply not) from here P. Phae. 229d, ἐμοὶ ὀργίζονται ἀλλ᾽ οὐχ αὑτοῖς they are angry with me instead of (or and not rather with) themselves P. A. 23c. In such cases καὶ οὐ (μή) would not repudiate the opposition.

2782

ἀλλά in Apodosis.—After a concession or a condition expressed or implied, the apodosis may be emphatically introduced by ἀλλά, ἀλλὰ . . . γε, ἀλλ᾽ οὖν γε still, yet, at least. Thus, εἰ σῶμα δοῦλον, ἀλλ᾽ ὁ νοῦς ἐλεύθερος if the body is enslaved, the mind at least is free A. fr. 854, εἰ δ᾽ ἐν πᾶσι τούτοις ἡττῴμεθα, ἀλλὰ τό γέ τοι πῦρ κρεῖττον καρποῦ ἐστιν but if we should be baffled in all these points, still, as they say, fire is stronger than the fruit of the field X. A. 2.5.19. So also in clauses other than conditional; as ἀλλ᾽ ἐπεὶ . . . πατέρα τόνδ᾽ ἐμὸν οὐκ ἀνέτλᾱτ᾽, . . . ἀλλ᾽ ἐμὲ . . . οἰκτί̄ρατε but since ye did not bear with my father, pity me at least S. O. C. 241.

2783

ἀλλά attached to Single Words.—ἀλλά, attached to a single word in an adverbial sense, may stand in the interior of the sentence (not in Hom.). Thus, ἀλλὰ νῦν now at least, as in τί δῆτ᾽ ἂν ἀλλὰ νῦν σ᾽ ἔτ᾽ ὠφελοῖμ᾽ ἐγώ, how pray, can I serve thee even now? S. Ant. 552. So with γέ, as

(and often in D.). Here ἀλλὰ νῦν implies εἰ μὴ πρότερον. ἀλλά sometimes apparently implies εἰ μή τι ἄλλο or εἰ μὴ ἄλλοις, etc., as λέγ᾽ ἀλλὰ τοῦτο say this at least (say but this) S. El. 415.

2784

ἀλλά opposing Whole Sentences.—ἀλλά well, well but, nay but, however is often used, especially at the beginning of a speech, in opposition either to something said (or supposed to be meant) by another, or to a latent feeling in the mind of the writer or speaker himself. Thus, ἀλλὰ πρῶτον μὲν μνησθήσομαι . . . ὃ τελευταῖον κατ᾽ ἐμοῦ εἶπε well, I will first allude to the charge against me which he mentioned last X. H. 2.3.35, ἀλλ᾽ ὤφελε μὲν Κῦρος ζῆν· ἐπεὶ δὲ τετελεύτηκεν κτλ. well, I would that Cyrus were alive; but since he is dead, etc. X. A. 2.1.4. Often of remonstrance or protest, as ἀλλ᾽ ἀμήχανον nay, it is impossible E. El. 529. ἀλλά is also especially common when a previous train of thought or remark is impatiently interrupted, as ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν τί δεῖ λέγειν; but what is the need of recounting this? S. Ph. 11. Similarly in

a. Replies (often in quick, abrupt, or decisive answers): ἤρετο ὅ τι εἴη τὸ σύνθημα· ὁ δ᾽ ἀπεκρἱ̄νατο· Ζεὺς σωτὴρ καὶ νἱ̄κη· ὁ δὲ Κῦρος ἀκούσᾱς Ἀλλὰ δέχομαί τε, ἔφη, καὶ τοῦτο ἔστω he asked what the watchword was; and he replied: “Zeus the saviour and Victory;” and Cyrus, on hearing this, said, “Well, I accept it and so let it be” X. A. 1.8.17.

b. Assent, with an adversative sense implied (cp. oh, well): ἀλλ᾽ ει᾽ δοκεῖ, χωρῶμεν well, if it pleases thee, let us be going S. Ph. 645.

c. Appeals, exhortations, proposals, and commands:

, ἀλλ᾽ ἐμοὶ πείθου καὶ μὴ ἄλλως ποίει nay, take my advice and don't refuse P. Cr. 45a. The tone here is often impatient.

d. Wishes and imprecations: ἀλλ᾽ εὐτυχοίης well, my blessings on thee! S. O. T. 1478.

e. Questions, to mark surprise: πῶς εἶπας; ἀλλ᾽ ἦ καὶ σοφὸς λέληθας ὤν; what dost thou mean? can it really be that thou art subtle too and without my knowing it? E. Alc. 58.

2785

ἀλλά is often used when a speaker introduces a supposed objection (either in his own name or in that of his opponent), and immediately answers it; as ἀλλὰ νὴ τὸν Δία ἐκεῖν᾽ ἂν ἴσως εἴποι πρὸς ταῦτα κτλ. but, by Zeus, he might perhaps say in reply to this, etc. D. 20.3. ἀλλά may here put the supposed objection and also give the answer. Thus, τί γὰρ καὶ βουλόμενοι μετεπέμπεσθ᾽ ἂν αὐτοὺς ἐν τούτῳ τῷ καιρῷ; ἐπὶ τὴν εἰρήνην; ἀλλ᾽ ὑπῆρχεν ἅπᾱσιν· ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ τὸν πόλεμον; ἀλλ᾽ αὐτοὶ περὶ τῆς εἰρήνης ἐβουλεύεσθε for with what possible desire would you have been sending them at that juncture? With a view to peace? Why (but) peace was open to all. With a view to war? Why (but) you were yourselves deliberating about peace D. 18.24. Cp. French mais introducing a reply to a question.

a. So in rapid dialogue objections may take the form of questions, in which each ἀλλά after the first may be rendered by or. Cp. 2654.

2786

ἀλλά with other Particles.—For example:

ἀλλὰ γάρ 2816; on ου᾽ γὰρ ἀλλά , see 2767.

ἀλλὰ . . . γε but at any rate.

ἀλλά γέ τοι ( τοί γε ) yet at least, yet be sure.

ἀλλὰ δή well then.

ἀλλ᾽ ἦ ; why how? can it really be that? what, can it be true? Here ἀλλά marks surprise, while ἦ asks the question.

ἀλλὰ μέντοι nay, but; well, however; yet truly. On ου᾽ μέντοι ἀλλά , see 2767.

ἀλλὰ μήν nay, but; but then; but surely. Often to introduce an objection, to reject an alternative, often merely to introduce a new idea or to resume an interrupted thought. On ου᾽ μὴν ἀλλά , see 2767.

ἀλλ᾽ ὅμως but still. Often without a verb, to introduce the reply to an objection.

ἀλλ᾽ οὐδέ is sometimes used elliptically, as in ὑπὲρ . . . ὧν οὗτος ἀπήγγειλε προ`ς ὑ̄μᾶς ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ μῑκρόν nay, there is not even ever so little (not only not a great deal but not even a little) concerning which he reported to you D. 19.37. ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ μὲν δή is often used to reject an alternative.

ἀλλ᾽ οὖν ( γε ) but then, well then, well at any rate; stronger than δ᾽ οὖν.

2787

ἄρα (Epic ἄρα and enclitic ἄρ before a consonant, ῥά usually after monosyllables; all postpositive), a connective, confirmatory, and inferential particle marking the immediate connection and succession of events and thoughts; the natural, direct, and expected consequence of a previous statement of the existing situation, or of the realization of experience of some sort; and agreement of various kinds, as between assertion and reality, cause and result, premise and conclusion, explanation and what was to be explained.

a. ἄρα marks a consequence drawn from the connection of thought, and expresses impression or feeling; the stronger οὖν marks a consequence drawn from facts (a positive conclusion).

2788

The etymology of ἄρα, and hence its original meaning, is obscure. Some derive it from the root ἀρ, seen in ἀρ-αρ-ίσκω fit, join, ἄρτι just; and thus regard the proper sense as fittingly, accordingly. Others think the earliest meaning was truly, forsooth and connect ἄρα with a lost adj. ἀρίς, surviving in ἄρι-στος, ἀρί-γνωτος. On this interpretation ἄρα would originally assert the truth of its own clause. ἄρα is found also in ἆρα and γάρ.

2789

ἄρα is used in Homer much more freely than in Attic, and often so as to defy exact translation. In general ἄρα in Epic marks immediate connection and succession, a natural consequence of something already said or done; gives an explanation of an antecedent statement; or is used in recapitulations and transitions. Thus,

, ὣς ἔφαθ᾽, οἱ δ᾽ ἄρα πάντες ἀκὴν ἐγένοντο σιωπῇ thus he spake, and all accordingly became hushed in silence H 92, σῖτον δέ σφιν ἔνειμε Μεσαύλιος, ὅν ῥα συβώτης αὐτὸς ἐκτήσατο and Mesaulius distributed food to them, a slave whom (and this was the reason for his so doing) the swineherd had acquired ξ 449, . So also in the later language; as .

2790

In Attic, and in part also in Homer, ἄρα marks an inference (conse- quently, so then, therefore, it seems, after all, of course, etc.). Thus, εἶπεν αὐτῷ ὅτι βασιλεὺς οὐ μαχεῖται δέκα ἡμερῶν· Κῦρος δ᾽ εἶπεν· οὐκ ἄρα ἔτι μαχεῖται, εἰ ἐν ταύταις οὐ μαχεῖται ταῖς ἡμέραις the seer said to him that the king would not fight within ten days. And Cyrus answered: “Well then if he does not fight within that time he will not fight at all” X. A. 1.7.18, οὐδεὶ<*> ποτοῦ ἐπιθῡμεῖ, ἀλλὰ χρηστοῦ ποτοῦ . . ., πάντες γὰρ ἄρα τῶν ἀγαθῶν ἐπιθῡμοῦσιν no one desires drink merely, but good drink, since of course everybody desires good things P. R. 438a.

2791

ἄρα is often used of direct logical conclusions in conducting an argument (especially in Plato); as

.

2792

In the argument ex contrario set forth in clauses with μέν and δέ, ἄρα, usually meaning in sooth, is commonly placed with the second clause (P. Ph. 80d, R. 445 b), occasionally with the first (P. Cr. 46d, L. 840 b), or with both (P. Ph. 97a, R. 600 c).

2793

In direct questions ἄρα adds liveliness, while at the same time it marks connection or consequence. So τίς ἄρα who then? πῶς ἄρα how then? In questions of anxiety ἄρα marks increase of feeling. Thus, τί μ᾽ ἄρα τί μ᾽ ὀλέκεις; why then, why dost thou destroy me? S. Ant. 1285.

2794

ἄρα occurs in questions in which the admissibility of one opinion is inferred from the rejection of another. Thus, εἰπέ μοι, ἔφη, ὦ Οεοδότη, ἔστι σοι ἀγρός; οὐκ ἔμοιγ᾽, ἔφη. ἀλλ᾽ ἄρα οἰκίᾱ προσόδους ἔχουσα; ‘tell me,’ said he, ‘Theodote, have you an estate?’ ‘Not I indeed,’ said she. ‘But perhaps then you have a house that brings in an income?’ X. M. 3.11.4. Such questions are often ironical (P. A. 25a).

2795

ἄρα is often used to indicate new perception, or surprise genuine or affected; as when the truth is just realized after a previous erroneous opinion and one finds oneself undeceived either agreeably or disagreeably. So, especially with the imperfect of εἶναι, ἄρα means after all, it seems, why then, so then, sure enough. See 1902.

2796

ει᾽ ἄρα, ἐὰ̄ν ἄρα if really, if after all, if indeed, are commonly used of that which is improbable or undesirable; ει᾽ ( ἐὰ̄ν ) μὴ ἄρα unless perhaps (nisi forte, nisi vero) is often ironical. Thus,

, καὶ μὴν εἰ καὶ τοῦτ᾽ ἄρα δεῖ μ᾽ εἰπεῖν and yet if I must after all say this too 18. 317, πολλάκις τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις παρῄνει, ἢν ἄρα ποτὲ κατὰ γῆν βιασθῶσι . . . ται῀ς ναυσὶ πρὸς ἅπαντας ἀνθίστασθαι he often counselled the Athenians, if after all they should ever be hard pressed on the land side, to fight the world with their fleet T. 1.93, .

2797

εἰ (ἐὰ̄ν) ἄρα is common after σκοπῶ, etc. See 2672.

2798

ἄρα is often used, especially with ὡς, to introduce the statement of others which, in the view of the speaker, is (usually) to be rejected. Thus, ἀκούω αὐτὸν ἐρεῖν ὡς ἄρ᾽ ἐγὼ πάντων ὧν κατηγορῶ κοινωνὸς γέγονα I hear that he is going to say that I forsooth (or if you please) have been a partner in all that I denounced D. 19.202.

2799

Attic has, in bimembral clauses, εἴτε ἄρα . . . εἴτε or εἴτε . . . εἴτε ἄρα , as

. Hom. has also a similar use with οὔτε . . . οὔτε, and ἢ . . . ἤ. Hom. has ἄρα . . . ἄρα ( ψ 887).

2800

ἆρα , a confirmative particle from ἦ ¨ ἄρα, is used in lyric and dramatic poetry in the sense of ἄρα. ἆρα is postpositive, except in New Comedy.

. Often with τίς, as τίς ἆρ᾽ ἐμοῦ γένοιτ᾽ ἂν ἀ̈θλιώτερος; who then could be more wretched than I am? Trag. fr. 280. On interrogative ἆρα, see 2650, 2651. Epic ἦ ῥα is both confirmatory and interrogative.

2801

ἀτάρ (prepositive; Hom. also αὐτάρ from αὖτε ¨ ἄρ) usually poetical, but found in Xenophon and Plato, is an adversative conjunction commonly used to introduce a strong or surprising contrast (but, but yet, however); sometimes to introduce a slight contrast (and, and then), but one stronger than that marked by δέ. ἀτάρ is common as a correlative to μέν. It is often found in lively questions to introduce an objection; in rapid transitions; and sometimes it serves to introduce the apodosis of a conditional sentence. ἀτάρ was largely displaced by the stronger ἀλλά.

2802

αὖ (postpositive), an adversative particle meaning on the other hand, on the contrary (properly again). In Hom. it serves as a correlative to μέν or ἦ τοι, and to introduce the apodosis of conditional or relative clauses.

αὖ is often used with personal pronouns, as

. 5; and is often added to δέ, as . Connected in meaning are the derivatives αὖτε (poetic) and αὖθις .

2803

γάρ (postpositive) in fact, indeed , and for, a confirmatory adverb and a causal conjunction. As a conjunction, γάρ usually stands after the first word in its clause; as an adverb, its position is freer. γάρ is especially common in sentences which offer a reason for, or an explanation of, a preceding or following statement. It may be used in successive clauses.

a. γάρ is from γέ ¨ ἄρ ( = ἄρα), γέ originally giving prominence either to the word it followed or to the whole clause, while ἄρα marked this prominence as due to something previously expressed or latent in the context. The compound γάρ originally emphasized a thought either as the result of existing circumstances or as a patent and well known fact. In most uses of the word, however, the force of its component parts cannot be distinguished nor is it clear in many cases whether γάρ is a conjunction or an adverb marking <*>ssurance.

2804

Adverbial γάρ appears in questions, answers, and wishes; and in many other cases where recourse is had to conscious or unconscious ellipse by those scholars who hold that γάρ is always a conjunction. Ellipse is sometimes natural and easy, but often clumsy and artificial. Though we find in parallel use both incomplete and complete clauses with γάρ, it is improbable that the Greeks were conscious of the need of any supplement to explain the thought. In many uses γάρ has become formulaic, serving only to show the natural agreement with the existing situation.

2805

In questions, γάρ asks for confirmation of a preceding statement, or expresses assent or dissent; asks whether an act before mentioned was not reasonable; asks a question prompted by some form of emotion; and serves to indicate transition, etc.

a. In questions γάρ often marks surprise or indignation, and may frequently be translated by what, why, then, really, surely. Thus, ταυτὶ̄ λέγεις σὺ στρατηγὸν πτωχὸς ὤν; ἐγὼ γάρ εἰμι πτωχός; do you, beggar that you are, address your general thus? what! I a beggar? Ar. Ach. 593, ἦ ζῇ γὰρ ἁ̄νήρ; is the man really alive? S. El. 1221, οἴει γάρ σοι μαχεῖσθαι . . . τὸν ἀδελφόν; do you really think that your brother is going to fight? X. A. <*> 7. 9. So τίς γάρ; who then, why who?

b. Brief interrogative for<*>ulae asking for confirmation of a preceding statement are:

τί γάρ ; what then, how when, how else? τί γάρ also serves as a formula of transition (now, well then, now what . . ., furthermore).

ἦ γάρ ; is it not so? surely this is so? (cp. n'est ce pas). Often of surprise.

ου᾽ γάρ ; is it not so? often in indignant questions; when not standing alone, why not?

<*>ῶς γάρ; πόθεν γάρ; imply that something is impossible (often of surprise). Cp. πῶς γὰρ οὔ; in negative rhetorical questions.

2806

In answers γά<*> marks assent, assurance, sometimes dissent. Thus,

, , , φῂς τάδ᾽ οὖν; ἃ μὴ φρονὼ̂ γὰρ οὐ φιλῶ λέγειν dost thou then consent to this? No, for I am not wont to utter words I do not mean S. O. T. 1520.

a. γάρ is common in brief answers, as after οὐ, δεῖ, ἔοικε, εἰκός, λέγω, ὡμολόγηται. So in the rhetorical questions πῶς γάρ; πῶς γὰρ οὔ; used as answers.

2807

In wishes:

, κακῶς γὰρ ἐξόλοιο oh that you might perish wretchedly E. Cyc. 261. Here γάρ marks the agreement of the wish with the existing situation.

2808

Explanatory (or prefatory) γάρ has the force of now, namely, that is, for example; but usually is not to be translated, and especially when the preceding sentence contains a verb of saying, showing, etc. It usually introduces, as an explanation, the details of that which was promised in an incomplete or general statement; sometimes, without any such statement, it introduces a new fact. Whether this γάρ is an adverb or a conjunction is uncertain. Thus, δοκεῖ τοίνυν μοι χαριέστερον εἶναι μῦθον ὑ̄μῖν λέγειν. ἦν γάρ ποτε κτλ. I think it will be more interesting to tell you a myth. Once upon a time there was, etc. P. Pr. 320c,

(at the beginning of a new point in the discussion).

2809

Explanatory γάρ often introduces a clause in apposition to a preceding demonstrative, to such expressions as τεκμήριον δέ or μαρτύριον δέ now the proof is this, δῆλον δέ (ἐστιν) it is clear, τὸ δὲ μέγιστον but, what is of the greatest importance, or to relative clauses (995). Thus, ὡς δ᾽ ἔτι μᾶλλον θαρρῇς, καὶ τόδε κατανόησον· οἱ μὲν γὰρ (explaining τόδε) πολέμιοι πολὺ μὲν ἐλά̄ττονές εἰσι νῦν ἢ πρὶν ἡττηθῆναι ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν and that you may be still more encouraged, consider this fact too. The enemy (namely) are much fewer now than they were before they were beaten by us X. C. 5.2.36, ἐννοήσωμεν δὲ καὶ τῇδε, ὡς πολλὴ ἐλπίς ἐστιν ἀγαθὸν αὐτὸ εἶναι. δυοῖν γὰρ θά̄τερόν ἐστιν τὸ τεθνάναι κτλ. let us consider the matter also in this way and we shall see that there is abundant reason to hope that it is a good: now death must be one of two things, etc. P. A. 40c, μαρτύριον δέ· Δήλου γὰρ καθαιρομένης κτλ. and this is a proof of it: now when Delos was being purified, etc. T. 1.8,

.

2810

Causal γάρ is a conjunction: for (nam, enim). It serves to introduce a cause of, or a reason for, an action before mentioned; to justify a preceding utterance; to confirm the truth of a previous statement. Causal γάρ often refers to a thought implied in what has preceded. Thus, λεκτέα ἃ γιγνώσκω· ἔμπειρος γάρ (causal) εἰμι καὶ τῆς χώρᾱς τῶν Παφλαγόνων καὶ τῆς δυνάμεως. ἔχει γὰρ (explanatory) ἀμφότερα, καὶ πεδία κάλλιστα καὶ ὄρη ὑψηλότατα I must tell what I know, for I am acquainted with the country of the Paphlagonians and its resources; now the country has very fertile plains and very lofly mountains X. A. 5.6.6, ἰού, δύστηνε· τοῦτο γάρ σ᾽ ἔχω μόνον προσειπεῖν alas, ill-fated one! for by this name alone can I address thee S. O. T. 1071, ἐπιστευόμην δὲ ὑπὸ τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων· οὐ γὰρ ἄν με ἔπεμπον πάλιν πρὸς ὑ̄μᾶς but I was trusted by the Lacedaemonians; for (otherwise, i.e. εἰ μὴ ἐπίστευον) they would not have sent me back to you P. A. 30c.

2811

Anticipatory γάρ states the cause, justifies the utterance, or gives the explanation, of something set forth in the main clause which follows. The main clause usually contains an inferential word, a demonstrative pointing backward, or καί, δέ, ἀλλά; or stands without a connective. Anticipatory γάρ may often be rendered by since, but is often omitted in translation. Thus, ἔτι τοίνυν ἀκούσατε καὶ τάδε. ἐπὶ λείᾱν γὰρ ὑ̄μῶν ἐκπορεύσονταί τινες. οἶμαι νῦν βέλτιστον εἶναι κτλ. listen therefore to this proposal also. Some of you will be going out to plunder. Now it is my opinion that it is best, etc. X. A. 5.1.8, ἐσελθὼν δὲ τὴν ταχίστην, ἦν γάρ οἱ παῖς εἷς μοῦνος . . ., τοῦτον ἐκπέμπει and when he had come in straightway, he sent out his son, for he had one only son Hdt. 1.119, ὦ φίλοι, οὐ γάρ τ᾽ ἴδμεν ὅπῃ ζόφος οὐδ᾽ ὅπῃ ἠώς . . . ἀλλὰ φραζώμεθα κτλ. friends, since we do not know where is the place of darkness nor of the dawn, let us consider, etc. κ 190,

.

a. In this construction γάρ may be an adverb, not a conjunction. Cases of explanatory γάρ (2808) and of parenthetical γάρ (2812), especially after vocatives, may fall under 2811.

2812

The clause with γάρ since is often inserted parenthetically in the clause which it is intended to explain; as ὁ δὲ (κρἱ̄νουσι γὰρ βοῇ καὶ οὐ ψήφῳ) οὐκ ἔφη διαγιγνώσκειν τὴν βοὴν ποτέρᾱ μείζων but, since they decide by shouts and not by ballot, he said he could not decide which side shouted the louder T. 1.87.

2813

καὶ γάρ has in general two distinct meanings according as γάρ is an adverb or a conjunction. As καὶ γάρ has become a formula, it is often uncertain which of the two words is the adverb, which the conjunction.

2814

(I) καὶ γάρ and in fact, and indeed, καί being a conjunction, and γάρ an adverb. Here the clause in which καὶ γάρ stands is added as a new and important thought; where γάρ alone would state the reason or the explanation with less independence and with slighter emphasis. The negative is οὐδὲ γάρ. Thus Κῦρος δ᾽ ὁρῶν τοὺς Ἕλληνας νῑκῶντας τὸ καθ᾽ αὑτοὺς . . . ἐπεμελεῖτο ὅ τι ποιήσει βασιλεύς. καὶ γὰρ ᾔδει αὐτὸν ὅτι μέσον ἔχοι τοῦ Περσικοῦ στρατεύματος on seeing the Greeks victorious over the troops opposed to them, Cyrus watched to see what the king would do; and in fact he knew that he commanded the centre of the Persian force X. A. 1.8.21 (cp. 1. 1. 6, 2. 5. 5, 2. 6. 2). So often in affirmative responses: ἢ οὐκ ἀγαπήσεις τούτων τυγχάνων; ἐγὼ μὲν γὰρ ἂν ἀγαπῴην. καὶ γὰρ ἐγώ, ἔφη or will you not be content if you obtain this? For my part I shall be. And so shall I, he said P. R. 473b.

a. καὶ γὰρ καί and even is καὶ γάρ and in fact reënforced by καί. Thus, καὶ γὰρ καὶ ἄδεια ἐφαίνετο αὐτοῖς and in fact it looked to them as if there was perfect safety in so doing T. 4.108. The negative is οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ (2938).

2815

(II) καὶ γάρ for even, for also. Here καί is an adverb affecting a single word, several words, or the whole sentence, and γάρ is a conjunction. The negative is οὐδὲ γάρ. Thus,

, , καὶ γὰρ μόνος ἡγοῖτ᾽ ἂν δύνασθαι πείθειν for, though quite unaided, he would think that he was able to persuade X. M. 1.2.11.

a. καὶ γὰρ . . . καί for both . . . and: here καί is correlated with a second καί; as

.

2816

ἀλλὰ γάρ occurs both in conjunction and separated by one or several words, which are generally emphatic.

2817

First Form (often but since, since however): here there are two predicates. In prose separation is the rule. Thus,

, ἀλλ᾽ ἴσως γὰρ καὶ ἄλλοι ταὐτὰ ἐνθῡμοῦνται, . . . μὴ ἀναμένωμεν ἄλλους ἐφ᾽ ἡμᾶς ἐλθεῖν κτλ. since however others too perhaps entertain the same opinion, let us not wait for others to come to us, etc. X. A. 3.1.24. In poetry the words are generally not separated. Thus, ἀλλὰ γὰρ Κρέοντα λεύσσω τόνδε . . . πρὸς δόμους στείχοντα, παύσω τοὺς . . . γόους since however I see Creon yonder coming to the palace, I will cease my lamentations E. Phoen. 1307. Here the clause coördinated by the conjunction γάρ is parenthetical and gives, by anticipation, the reason for the ἀλλά clause. Cp. ἀλλ᾽ ἐπεί ε 137, and Shakesp. Sonnet 54: “but, for their virtue only is their show, They live unwoo'd.”—The first form is found chiefly in Homer, Pindar, Herodotus, and in the drama.

2818

Second Form (usually but indeed, but in fact, but the truth is, but be that as it may). Here there is a single predicate. Thus,

, ἀλλὰ γιγνώσκω γὰρ . . . ὅτι κτλ. but indeed I know that, etc. X. C. 2.1.13, , .

a. In this use γάρ may have preserved, or regained, its primitive adverbial (confirmatory) force. Many scholars, however, claim that there was a conscious or unconscious ellipse, after ἀλλά, of an idea pertinent to the situation; and thus regard this form as logically equivalent to the form in which γάρ is a causal conjunction. In actual use ἀλλὰ γάρ was clearly a formula used without any consciousness of an omitted idea.

2819

ἀλλὰ γάρ has a great variety of uses, most of which may be classed as follows:

a. In statements of direct opposition: καὶ ταῦτά σε πολλοῦ δεῖ λεληθέναι, ἀλλὰ γὰρ οἶμαι δ̀ ἄρτι οὐκ ἔφησθα ποιεῖν, τοῦτο ποιεῖς and you are far from forgetting this, but in fact I think you are doing that which you just denied you were doing P. Charm. 166c.

N. This use is post-Homeric, rare in the drama, common in the orators and Plato. It is especially frequent in putting and setting aside an objection supposed to be raised by an opponent (hypophora). Cp. b.

b. In real and assumed objections (cp. at enim): καὶ ἀληθῆ γε ἔλεγον, ὦ Σώκρατες. ἴσως. ἀλλὰ γάρ, ὦ Εὐθύφρων, καὶ ἀλλὰ πολλὰ φῂς εἶναι ὅσια yes, and I said what was true, Socrates. Perhaps, but in fact, Euthyphron, you say that many other things too are holy P. Euth. 6d, ἀλλὰ γάρ, φήσει τις, οὐ ῥᾴδιον ἀεὶ λανθάνειν κακὸν ὄντα yes, but some one will say that it is not easy always to conceal the fact that one is wicked P. R. 365c.

c. In transitions.—(1) At the close of the discussion of an argument, where the force of ἀλλά is like that of and yet or emphatic but. Thus, ἀλλὰ γάρ, ὦ βουλή, ταῦτα μὲν ἐνθάδε οὐκ οἶδ᾽ ὅ τι δεῖ λέγειν but, Senators, I do not know why I should discuss these matters here L. 7.42,

.

(2) To restrain the expression of emotion; as ἀλλ᾽ ἄναξ γάρ ἐστ᾽ ἐμός, σῑγῶ but no, I am silent for he is my king E. El. 1245.

(3) When the approach of a new actor is announced. Cp. 2817, 2818.

2820

Other Combinations.— γὰρ ἄρα for sure enough.

γὰρ δή for of course, for indeed, for you must know, as φαμὲν γὰρ δή for of course we say so.

γὰρ δή που for I presume, for doubtless.

γὰρ οὖν often of frank assent, as οὐ γὰρ οὖν certainly not, λέγω γὰρ οὖν certainly, I do say so; less often to explain (for certainly); καὶ γὰρ οὖν (not very common) is stronger than καὶ γάρ.

γάρ που for I suppose.

γάρ τοι for surely, for mark you; sometimes καὶ γάρ τοι.

2821

γέ (postpositive and enclitic) is an intensive and restrictive particle with the force of at least, at any rate, even, certainly, indeed; but often to be rendered by intonation. γέ may indicate assent, concession, banter, scorn, deprecation, irony, etc. γέ emphasizes single words or whole phrases or clauses.

a. Single words. So often with pronouns, as ἔγωγε I at least (excluding others), ἐμέ γε cp. mi-ch, ὅ γε even he (Hom.), οὗτός γε, and with a repeated pronoun (S. Ph. 117). Other words, as ὅ τι βούλει γε whatever you like Ar. Ran. 3,

.

b. With phrases or clauses. Thus,

, ἀνθρώπους τί̄νυσθον, ὅτις γ᾽ ἐπίορκον ὀμόσσῃ ye who punish men who swear falsely Γ 279.

2822

γέ may be used twice in the same sentence. Thus,

. Cp. Hdt. 1.187, Ar. Vesp. 1507.

2823

γέ stands between article and noun, as οἵ γ᾽ ἄνθρωποι (after a preposition, as ἔν γε τῷ φανερῷ); between noun and adjective, or after the adjective, as ἀνήρ γε σοφός, or ἀνὴρ σοφός γε; after a possessive pronoun, as ἐμός γε θῡμός; after μέν, δέ, τέ, as ὅτι δέ γε ἀληθῆ λέγω. When γέ influences a whole clause it stands as near as possible to the introductory conjunction; as εἴ γε, ἆρά γε.

2824

γέ in contrasts and alternatives; as σὺ δ᾽ ου᾽ λέγεις γε (αἰσχρά),

, , (here γέ indicates a change in an alternative series; cp. οὔτε . . . οὔτε . . . οὐδέ γε and καὶ . . . γε 2829).

2825

γέ in replies and comments (yes, well). Thus, δοκεῖ παρεικαθεῖν; ὅσον γ᾽, ἄναξ, τάχιστα does it seem best to you that I should give way? Aye, my lord, and with all speed S. Ant. 1102. Here καὶ . . . γε is common, as καὶ οὐδέν γε ἀτόπως yes, and no wonder P. Th. 142b.

2826

ὅς γε (rarely ὅστις γε ) has a causal force, much like qui quidem, quippe qui. Thus,

. So with other relatives, as οἷος, ὅσος, ὥσπερ.

2827

γέ sometimes marks an ellipse (S. Ph. 1409). When the verb of the apodosis is omitted, the protasis often has γέ (so usually in Aristophanes, e.g. Nub. 267).

2828

When γέ is followed by other particles, it belongs with the emphasized word, and the other particles retain their original force; as

. So γε δή, γε μὲν δή, γέ τοι (often used like γοῦν in giving a reason for a belief), γέ τοι δή. With the imperative, γέ is rare except when it is followed by another particle, as ὅρᾱ γε μήν S. O. C. 587.

2829

After other Particles.—For example:

δέ γε : here γέ usually does not emphasize δέ but either a single word or the whole clause; as ἡμῖν δέ γε οἶμαι πάντα ποιητέα but we at least, in my opinion, should adopt every means X. A. 3.1.35. δὲ . . . γε is often used when two things are compared, in order to show that one is more important than the other.

καὶ . . . γε sometimes means yes, and and sometimes γέ emphasizes the intervening word. Thus, κοὐδέν γε θαῦμα yes, and no wonder S. O. T. 1132,

. καὶ . . . γε often emphasizes one item in a series, and especially the last item, Here καὶ . . . γέ προς (καὶ πρός γε) and besides is common. Cp. P. G. 450d, 469 b.

μέν γε lends force to a contrast (P. S. 180d); sometimes it has the force of that is to say, for example (T. 6.86).

Frequent combinations are ἀλλ᾽ οὖν . . . γε, μέντοι . . . γε, μὴν . . . γε, οὐκοῦν . . . γε.

2830

γοῦν (postpositive; first in Aeschylus) is a restrictive particle from γέ ¨ οὖν. Its meaning varies according to the prominence of the γέ or οὖν; often certainly, at any rate (at all events, at least). γοῦν commonly confirms a previous general assertion by giving a special instance of its truth (the special instance may be a seeming exception). γοῦν is thus used in bringing forward a reason, which, while not absolutely conclusive, is the most probable explanation of a previous statement.

.

2831

γοῦν may emphasize a pronoun; as πρὸς γοῦν ἐμοῦ S. Aj. 527, τὰ γοῦν σά S. El. 1499.

2832

In answers γοῦν means well, at least; yes certainly; as εἰκὸς γοῦν X. C. 5.3.14.

2833

γοῦν finds the proof of an assertion in one of several possible facts or occurrences; γάρ gives the reason in general, but gives no particular instance; δ᾽ οὖν has an adversative force: ‘be that as it may, yet at any rate.’

2834

δέ (postpositive) was originally an adverb with a force not unlike that of on the other hand, on the contrary; later it became a conjunction commonly represented by but or and, which are, however, mere makeshifts of translation. δέ serves to mark that something is different from what precedes, but only to offset it, not to exclude or contradict it; it denotes only a slight contrast, and is therefore weaker than ἀλλά, but stronger than καί. δέ is adversative and copulative; but the two uses are not always clearly to be distinguished.

2835

Adversative δέ often marks a silent contrast, as at the beginning of speeches (ἐγὼ δὲ οὕτω γιγνώσκω X. A. 4.6.10); in questions which imply opposition to something just said (S. O. C. 57); in answers (S. O. T. 379); in objections or corrections (S. Ant. 517); in τὸ δέ, τὰ δέ on the contrary, whereas really, where a true opinion is opposed to a false one; similarly in νῦν δέ but in fact, but as the case stands. When δέ is balanced by μέν (2904) it is antithetical rather than adversative.

a. δέ after a pronoun following a vocative produces a pause; as Νιόβᾱ σὲ δ᾽ ἔγωγε νέμω θεόν ah Niobe, thee I regard as divine S. El. 150.

b. δέ instead of ἀλλά is rare except in the poets and Thucydides. Thus, προμηνύ̄σῃς γε τοῦτο μηδενὶ τοὖργον, κρυφῆ δὲ κεῦθε make known this plan to no one, but hide it in secret S. Ant. 85,

. Sometimes οὐ μέν precedes when δέ is used like ἀλλά<*>(T. 1.50).

c. But not is ἀλλ᾽ ου᾽ or οὐ μέντοι, not οὐ δέ, in order to avoid confusion with οὐδέ nor, not even. But οὐ and δέ may be separated, as

.

2836

Copulative δέ marks transition, and is the ordinary particle used in connecting successive clauses or sentences which add something new or different, but not opposed, to what precedes, and are not joined by other particles, such as γάρ or οὖν.

Copulative δέ is common in marking continuation, especially when something subordinate is added. Thus, when a new phase of a narrative is developed (X. A. 1.2.7-8); where attention is called to a new point or person (as in τί δ᾽ ἔστιν;); when an interrupted speech or narrative is resumed (X. C. 1.6.41, S. Tr. 281); where a second relationship is added (μήτηρ βασιλέως, βασίλεια δ᾽ ἐμή the mother of the King, and my Queen A. Pers. 151, Ἠιόνα . . . Μενδαίων ἀποικίᾱν, πολεμίᾱν δὲ οὖσαν he seized Eïon, a colony of Mende, and which had been hostile T. 4.7); when δέ has a force like that of γάρ (X. C. 6.3.16); and in καὶ . . . δέ and also (Epic καὶ δέ), 2891.

2837

Apodotic δέ.—The beginning of the principal clause (apodosis) of conditional and concessive sentences is often marked by δέ. Apodotic δέ is found also in the principal clause of causal, temporal, comparative, and relative sentences; and regularly gives greater emphasis to the main clause, which is thus distinctly set off against the subordinate clause. Apodotic δέ is very common in Homer and Herodotus, not rare in Attic poetry, but infrequent in Attic prose, where it is used especially after an emphatic personal or demonstrative pronoun or when a participle represents the antecedent clause. Thus, εἷος ὁ ταῦθ᾽ ὥρμαινε . . ., ἦλθε δ᾽ Ἀθήνη while he was revolving these things, then came Athene A 193,

, , , , .

a. Apodotic δέ often resumes a δέ in the subordinate clause and carries on the opposition expressed by that clause; as εἰ δὲ βούλεσθε . . . ἐκλεξάμενοι ὅποι ἂν βούλησθε κατασχεῖν . . ., πλοῖα δ᾽ ὑ̄μῖν πάρεστιν but if you wish to select some place wherever you please and take possession of it, you have ships at command X. A. 5.6.20, ἃ δ᾽ αἰσχύ̄νην ἡμῖν φέρει . . ., ταῦτα δὲ κατὰ χώρᾱν μένει but the terms which cause us shame, these remain in force I. 4.176.

b. The use of apodotic δέ should not be regarded as a survival of original coördination.

2838

δέ without μέν.—A clause with δέ often has no correlative particle in the clause with which it is contrasted. Here μέν is not used because the opposition in the first clause was too weak, or because the speaker did not intend to announce a following contrast or did not think he was going to use a contrasted δέ clause. Sometimes the entire first clause may have to be supplied in thought from the general connection or from what has gone before. δέ without μέν in such cases is common in poetry, but not rare in prose, even in brief antitheses, as ἃ πάντες ἀεὶ γλίχονται λέγειν, ἀξίως δ᾽ οὐδεὶς εἰπεῖν δεδύνηται exploits which everybody continually desires to recount, but which no one has been able to set forth adequately D. 6.11. See also 2835.

a. When a relative construction passes over into a construction with a personal or demonstrative pronoun, the relative clause usually has no μέν. Cp. Soph. Aj. 457, quoted in 2517.

b. οἱ δέ, when opposed to a larger number of persons or things, is often used without οἱ μέν, as προεληλυθότες ἐπὶ χῑλόν, οἱ δ᾽ ἐπὶ ξύλα having gone for fodder, and some for fuel X. C. 6.3.9.

2839

δέ with other Particles.—For example:

δ᾽ ἄρα , which sometimes follows μέν.

δ᾽ αὖ and ὅμως δέ mark stronger opposition than δέ alone.

δὲ δή but then, but now, well but is often used in passing to a new point. In Aristophanes this collocation is used almost always in questions.

2840

δή (postpositive except in Hom. δὴ γάρ and poetic δὴ τότε) marks something as immediately present and clear to the mind, and gives greater precision, positiveness, and exactness. It sets forth what is obvious, acknowledged, and natural, and often corresponds to voilà. δή is used with single words (especially adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and conjunctions) or, as a sentence adverb, with whole clauses. δή usually stands after the word it emphasizes, though it may be separated from it by one or more other words.

2841

δή of what is Obvious and Natural.—Thus, ἴστε δή you know of course, δεῖ δή it is manifestly necessary. So

, , Παρύσατις μὲν δὴ ἡ μήτηρ ὑπῆρχε τῷ Κύ̄ρῳ Parysatis, his mother, naturally supported Cyrus X. A. 1.1.4.

2842

Ironical δή.—Thus,

; often ὡς δή , as .

2843

Intensive δή emphasizes, and makes definite, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and other words. Thus, ἅπαντες δή absolutely all, κράτιστοι δή the very best, μόνος δή quite alone, ὀλίγοι δή very few; οὕτω δή just so, ὥσπερ δή exactly as, πολλάκις δή very often, δῆλα δή quite plain, νῦν δή just now, now at once; ἐκεῖνος δή this (and no other), δ̀ς δή who indeed. With indefinite pronouns δή increases the indefiniteness (339 e); as ὅστις δή whoever at all. With other words: εἰ δή if indeed, οὐ δή no indeed, ἵνα δή that in truth.

a. With imperatives and in questions δή adds urgency; as ἄκουε δή pray listen! τί δή; why, pray?

2844

δή may introduce emphatically the conclusion of a temporal sentence or of a narrative on passing to a new topic; as ἐνταῦθα δή, τότε δή then indeed, then and not till then, then it was that. Cp. X. A. 1.10.1.

2845

Temporal δή often, especially with καί, approximates in meaning to ἤδη already. Thus,

, ὁπότε . . . θηρῴης καὶ δὴ δύο ἡμέρᾱς when you have hunted (already) for two days X. C. 2.4.17, καὶ δὴ λέγω σοι well I will tell thee (without further ado) S. Ant. 245. So also in τέλος δή, νῦν δή.—Of succession, δή means next.—Poetic δαὖτε (δὴ αὖτε) means now again.

2846

Consecutive and Resumptive δή is used to set forth an inference, draw a conclusion, denote a consequence, and mark a transition (μὲν δὴ . . . δέ). Here δή is a sentence adverb: accordingly, then, of course, clearly, you see, I say. Thus,

, .

2847

καὶ δή : (a) Introduces a climax, as καὶ δὴ τὸ μέγιστον and above all, what is the main thing P. A. 41b. (b) In replies = well; as βλέψον κάτω· καὶ δὴ βλέπω look down! Well, I am looking Ar. Av. 175. This is akin to the temporal use. (c) In assumptions = suppose (1771). On καὶ δὴ καί see 2890.

2848

δαί is used in colloquial Attic after interrogative words to express wonder, indignation, etc. Thus, τί δαί; πῶς δαί; what then? how so?

2849

δῆθεν truly, forsooth, is commonly used of apparent or pretended truth, and mostly with an ironical tone. Thus,

.

2850

δήπου probably, I presume, I should hope, doubtless, you will admit, is stronger than πού perhaps, I suppose. δήπου often has a touch of irony or doubt in stating a case that would seem to be certain; as ἴστε δήπου ὅθεν ἥλιος ἀνίσχει you know, I presume, where the sun rises X. A. 5.7.6. In questions δήπου expects the answer yes. οὐ δήπου certainly not and is it not so? (with irony).

2851

δῆτα assuredly, really, in truth, is rare outside of Attic. It occurs: (a) In answers, often when a word is repeated with assent; as

; οὐ δῆτα surely not, in strong or indignant denial. (b) In questions, to mark an inference or consequence, as πῶς δῆτα; how in truth? τί δῆτα; what then? καὶ δῆτα ἐτόλμας; and didst thou really dare? S. Ant. 449. (c) In wishes and deprecations (stronger than δή), as , μὴ δῆτα, θῡμέ, μή σύ γ᾽ ἐργάσῃ τάδε no indeed, my heart, do not this deed E. Med. 1056.

2852

εἴτε (from εἰ ¨ τέ), a disjunctive particle, generally doubled: εἴτε . . . εἴτε whether . . . or (2675), if . . . or (siue . . . siue), giving equal value to each supposition.

a. With the subjunctive we find ἐά̄ν τε (ἤν τε, ἄ̄ν τε). Hom. has εἴτε . . . εἴτε, but not ἤν τε . . . ἤν τε, with the subjunctive. In the same sense Hom. has ἢ . . . ἤ and ἤτε . . . ἤτε with the subjunctive.

2853

There are various forms of εἴτε clauses:

a. Both εἴτε clauses may have the same finite verb in common, which verb is used only once; as

.

b. Each εἴτε clause has its own verb and its own main clause; as ἐκέλευσέ σε, εἴτε πάντας αἰτιᾷ, κρί̄ναντα σὲ αὐτὸν χρῆσθαι ὅ τι ἂν βούλῃ, εἴτε ἕνα τινὰ ἢ δύο . . . αἰτιᾷ, τούτους ἀξιοῦσι παρασχεῖν σοι ἑαυτοὺς εἰς κρίσιν the army requests that, if you accuse all, you pass sentence on them and treat them as you may think best; or, if you accuse one or two, they think it right that these men should surrender themselves to you for judgment X. A. 6.6.20.

c. One main clause refers to both εἴτε clauses; as

ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνὴρ . . . εὐδαίμων ἐστὶ . . . ἐά̄ν τε μέγας καὶ ἰσχῡρός, ἐά̄ν τε σμῑκρὸς καὶ ἀσθενὴς ᾖ

the good man is happy whether he is large and strong or small and weak

(P. L. 660e)

.

d. Neither εἴτε clause has a verb, which is to be supplied from the main clause; as λέγοντες, εἴτ᾽ ἀληθὲς εἴτ᾽ ἄρ᾽ οὖν μάτην (ἔλεγον) saying, whether truly or after all, it may be, falsely S. Ph. 345.

e. One εἴτε clause has its own verb, while the other gets its verb from the main clause (rare); as ἐμοὶ σὺ . . . φαίνῃ . . . χρησμῳδεῖν, εἴτε παρ᾽ Εὐθύφρονος ἐπίπνους γενόμενος (χρησμῳδεῖς),

εἴτε καὶ ἄλλη τις μοῦσα πάλαι σε ἐνοῦσα ἐλελήθει

you seem to me to utter prophecies, whether you were inspired by Euthyphron or whether some other muse has long been present in you without your knowing it

(P. Crat. 428c)

.

2854

Variations: εἴτε . . . ἤ (common): εἴτε Λῡσίᾱς ἤ τις ἄλλος πώποτε ἔγραψεν ἢ γράψει κτλ. whether Lysias or anybody else whoever wrote or will write, etc. P. Phae. 277d. ἢ . . . εἴτε : only in poetry (S. Aj. 175). εἴτε . . . εἰ δέ : when the second member is more important (P. L. 952c). On ει᾽ . . . εἴτε see 2675 d. On εἴτε for εἴτε . . . εἴτε see 2675 b, N. 2.

2855

εἴτε may be strengthened by ἄρα, δή, καί, or οὖν. οὖν is usually placed after the first εἴτε; like καί, it may stand after the second also. When καί stands only after the second εἴτε, its clause is weaker than the first (D. 18.57).

2856

Disjunctive ἤ (Epic ἠέ) or (uel, aut); and repeated: ἢ . . . ἤ either . . . or (uel . . . uel, aut . . . aut) to connect the two members more closely.

, . ἤ with the subjunctive is often used when a speaker corrects himself; as νῦν δ᾽ αὖ τρίτος ἦλθέ ποθεν σωτήρ, ἢ μόρον εἴπω; and now, again, the third has come, the deliverer—or shall I call it a deed of death? A. Ch. 1074. On ἤ in questions, see 2657, 2675.

2857

Between ascending numbers ἤ has the force of Eng. to, as

.

2858

ἤτοι may be used instead of the first ἤ when the first member, as is commonly the case, contains the more probable choice. In English the order is often inverted. Thus,

. ἤτοι may be followed by ἤ several times. ἤτοι . . . γε is more emphatic, as .

2859

ἤ often indicates that a given result will follow in case the action of the previous clause is not realized: or else (cp. εἰ δὲ μή, 2346 d). Thus,

.

2860

ἤ often does not introduce an alternative to a previous question, but substitutes instead another question which is more specific and intended to anticipate the answer to the first (or rather, or precisely). Thus, λέγε ἡμῖν πῶς με φῂς διαφθείρειν τοὺς νεωτέρους; ἢ δῆλον δὴ ὅτι . . . θεοὺς διδάσκειν μὴ νομίζειν οὓς ἡ πόλις νομίζει; tell us how you mean that I corrupt the young? Or rather clearly you mean that (I corrupt them) by teaching them not to acknowledge the gods which the State acknowledges? P. A. 26b.

2861

ἤ often introduces an argument ex contrario (D. 31.14).

2862

ἢ καί is often used where ἤ would suffice (cp. 2888 a); as ἢ ξένος ἢ καί τις πο<*>`ί̄της either an alien or a citizen if you will (or as well) D. 20.123.

2863

Comparative ἤ than is used to mark difference. It stands after comparatives where the genitive or a preposition (1069 ff.) is not used, and after words indicating difference or diversity or having a comparative force, e.g., ἄλλος or ἕτερος other, ἄλλως otherwise, διάφορος different, διαφέρειν to be different, ἐναντίος contrary, διπλάσιος twice as much, πρίν sooner.

, ἄλλο οὐδὲν ἢ ἐκ γῆς ἐναυμάχουν T. 4.14 (2778 a), τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ δεῖ με ἀποθνῄσκειν ἢ ᾗ ἂν ἔλθῃ τὸ πλοῖον I must die the day after (that on which) the ship arrives P. Cr. 44a (here ἤ or ᾗ might be omitted), τἀ̄ναντία . . . ἢ τοὺς κύνας ποιοῦσι differently from the way they treat dogs X. A. 5.8.24, .

a. After τί or a negative, ἤ may be used without ἄλλος, as τί ποιῶν ἢ εὐωχούμενος; doing what else except feasting? P. Cr. 53e,

.

b. Often after verbs of willing, choosing, etc.; as

. Here we might have μᾶλλον ἤ, which is usually not separated, and especially when μᾶλλον belongs to the whole sentence.

c. If two clauses connected by ἤ have the same verb it may be omitted in the clause following ἤ; as ἔπρᾱττες ἀλλοῖον ἢ οἱ πολλοί (πρά̄ττουσι) you behaved differently from the rest P. A. 20c.

d. On ἢ ὥστε (ὡς), or ἤ alone, than so as to, see 2264.

2864

Asseverative ἦ (prepositive) in truth, in sooth, verily, upon my honour, etc.; as ἦ καλῶς λέγεις P. G. 447c.

2865

ἦ is usually associated with other particles.

ἦ γάρ when used alone in dialogue = is it not so? Cp. n'est ce pas, nicht wahr? Elsewhere it often has the force of am I to understand that asked with surprise. Thus, ἦ γὰρ νοεῖς θάπτειν σφ᾽, ἀπόρρητον πόλει; what, dost thou in truth intend to bury him, when it is forbidden to the citizens? S. Ant. 44.

ἦ δή expresses lively surprise.

ἦ καί is found in animated questions. Here καί goes closely with ἦ.

ἦ μήν (Hom. ἦ μέν, ἦ μά̄ν) prefaces strong asseverations, threats, and oaths, in direct and indirect discourse. Thus,

, .

ἦ που indeed, methinks, in poetry I ween. Here the shade of doubt indicated by πού is not real.

2866

Interrogative ἦ (2650) is probably the same as asseverative ἦ.

2867

ἠδέ and (Epic, lyric, tragic); also in conjunction with τε καί, or δέ. ἠμέν . . . ἠδέ (Epic) is used like τὲ . . . τέ, καὶ . . . καί.

ἰδέ and (Epic, rare in tragedy) is used where ἠδέ does not suit the metre.

2868

καί is both a copulative conjunction (and) connecting words, clauses, or sentences; and an adverb meaning also, even.

2892

και<*>περ although is common with participles (2083). As a conjunction (cp. quanquam) without a main clause it is very rare (P. S. 219c).

2893

καίτοι (καὶ ¨ τοι<*>), not in Homer, means and yet, although, rarely and so then. Here τοί marks something worthy of note, which is commonly opposed to what precedes. καίτοι is used in making a correction (sometimes in the form of a question), in passing to a new idea, and in the statement of a conclusion. The common καίτοι . . . γε is stronger than καίτοι.

.

a. A sentence preceding καίτοι is often restated by a clause introduced by ἀλλά (ἀλλ᾽ ὅμως), δέ, or νῦν δέ. Cp. P. Ph. 77a, Charm. 175 c, A. 40 b, G. 499 c.

b. καίτοι is rarely, if ever, used with the participle in classical Greek. It is best attested in P. R. 511d; emendation is resorted to in L. 31.34, Ar. Eccl. 159.

2894

μά asseverative (cp. μήν, μέν asseverative) with the accusative of the divinity or thing by which one swears. In negative sentences we have οὐ μά or μά alone with the accusative; in affirmative sentences, ναὶ μά, but more commonly νή. The omission of the accusative may sometimes be due to indecision or to indifference and not always to scrupulousness (1596 c). μά means properly in truth, verily; but apparently governs the accusative after the ellipse of such verbs as I call to witness.

2895

μέν was originally an asseverative, emphatic particle (surely, certainly, indeed) and a weaker form of μήν. Cp. Epic ἦ μέν, καὶ μέν, οὐ μέν in asseverations and protestations. Asseverative μέν survived as μέν solitarium and in combination with other particles. Antithetical (concessive) μέν owes its origin to the fact that, as emphasis. may indicate a contrast, the clause in which μέν stood was felt as preliminary to an adversative member of the sentence. Through association with this adversative member μέν gradually lost its primitive asseverative force.

2896

μέν solitarium occurs when a clause with μέν is not followed by a clause with δέ. This is especially common when the antithetical clause is to be supplied in thought, as when μέν emphasizes a statement made by a person with reference to himself as opposed to others (often with a tone of arrogance or of credulity). Here any possible opposition or difference of opinion, however justifiable, is left unexpressed. Thus, ἐγὼ μὲν οὐκ οἶδα I for my part do not know (though others may) X. C. 1.4.12,

. So in such phrases as δοκῶ μέν, ἡγοῦμαι μέν, οἶμαι μέν.

2897

Sometimes μέν solitarium merely emphasizes a word in its clause and does not imply a contrast. Thus,

.

2898

μέν solitarium is commonest after personal pronouns; but occurs also after demonstrative pronouns (L. 25.16), after relatives (Aes. 3.209), after substantives without the article (D. 9.15), or after the article and before its substantive (L. 29.1), after adjectives (L. 1.27), after adverbs (L. 12.91), after verbs (D. 19.231). In questions μέν alone is rare (P. Men. 82b).

2899

In combination with other particles, especially δή and οὖν, asseverative μέν either has a simple confirmatory force or is used adversatively. The following cases must be distinguished from those in which μέν is correlative to δέ.

2900

μὲν δή expresses positive certainty, especially in conclusions. It is common in summing up and in transitions, and is used either alone or with other particles (sometimes it is followed by ἀλλά or δέ). Thus,

. So also, e.g. ἀλλὰ μὲν δή but certainly in fact (ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ μὲν δή in rejecting an alternative); ει᾽ μὲν δή if indeed in truth; καὶ μὲν δή and in truth, and in fact (often in transitions); ου᾽ μὲν δή certainly not at all, nor yet, in truth (often used adversatively).

2901

μὲν οὖν lit. certainly in fact, μέν being a weaker form of μήν. μὲν οὖν has two common uses, according as the particles have a compound force, or each has its own force.

a. The compound force of μὲν οὖν is seen in affirmations; as in replies: πάνυ (μάλιστα) μὲν οὖν yes, by all means; certainly, by all means; aye truly, εὖ μὲν οὖν οἶδα nay, I am sure of it, οὐ μὲν οὖν indeed not,

.

b. The compound force appears also when μὲν οὖν indicates a correction; nay rather (imo vero); as λέγε σύ· σὺ μὲν οὖν μοι λέγε do you say. Nay, rather you Ar. Eq. 13, ἄτοπον τὸ ἐνύπνιον, ὦ Σώκρατες. ἐναργὲς μὲν οὖν the dream is strange, Socrates. Nay rather, it was distinct P. Cr. 44b.

c. Each particle has its own force especially where μὲν οὖν indicates a transition to a new subject. Here μέν points forward to an antithesis to follow and indicated by δέ, ἀλλά, μέντοι, while οὖν (inferential) connects with what precedes. Here so then, therefore may be used in translation. Thus,

Sometimes μὲν οὖν (like igitur) shows that a subject announced in general terms is now to be treated in detail (P. Ph. 70c).

2902

Common collocations are ἀλλὰ μέν (ἀλλὰ . . . μέν) but for a fact, γὲ μέν, ἦ μέν, καὶ μέν.

2903

Antithetical (concessive) μέν distinguishes the word or clause in which it stands from a following word or clause marked usually by δέ or by other particles denoting contrast, such as ἀλλά, ἀτάρ, μέντοι, μήν; and even by copulative τέ, καί (Hom. ἠδέ). μέν never connects words, clauses, or sentences.

2904

μὲν . . . δέ serves to mark stronger or weaker contrasts of various kinds, and is sometimes to be rendered by on the one hand . . . on the other hand, indeed . . . but; but is often to be left untranslated. The μέν clause has a concessive force when it is logically subordinate (while, though, whereas, cp. 2170). Thus,

, .

a. So ἄλλοτε μὲν . . . ἄλλοτε δέ, ἅμα μὲν . . . ἅμα δέ at once . . . and, partly . . . partly, ἔνθα μὲν . . . ἔνθα δέ, ἐνταῦθα μὲν . . . ἐκεῖ δέ, πρῶτον μὲν . . . ἔπειτα δέ (or ἔπειτα alone). On ὁ μὲν . . . ὁ δέ see 1107. Instead of ὁ (οἱ) δέ we find e.g. ἄλλος δέ, ἔνιοι δέ, ἔστι δ᾽ οἵ. So τοῦτο μὲν . . . τοῦτ᾽ ἄλλο (or αὖθις).—μέν may stand with a participle, δέ with a finite verb, in an antithetical sentence. Example in 2147 c.

b. εἰ, οὐ (μή) standing before μὲν . . . δέ exercise their force on both opposed clauses.

2905

When several verbs referring to the same person or thing are contrasted, or when several attributes are contrasted, the first has μέν, the others δέ. Cp. Lyc. 5, X. A. 3.1.19. But μέν is sometimes omitted.

2906

μέν . . . δέ is used in successive clauses which contain either the same word (anaphora) or a synonymous word; as ἐγὼ δὲ σύνειμι μὲν θεοῖς, σύνειμι δὲ ἀνθρώποις τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς quoted in 1159,

. But μέν is sometimes omitted, as .

2907

If more than two clauses are contrasted, only the first clause has μέν, while each of the following clauses has δέ (X. A. 1.3.14, X. C. 4.2.28).

2908

A contrast indicated by μέν and δέ may stand inside another contrast indicated in the same manner, as ὁ μὲν ἀνὴρ τοιαῦτα μὲν πεποίηκε, τοιαῦτα δὲ λέγει· ὑ̄μῶν δὲ σὺ πρῶτος, ὦ Κλέαρχε, ἀπόφηναι γνώμην ὅ τι σοι δοκεῖ the man has acted thus, and speaks thus; but do you, Clearchus, be the first to make known what you think best X. A. 1.6.9.

2909

Two relative (or conditional) clauses each with μέν may be followed by two demonstrative clauses each with δέ; but the second δέ is usually omitted, and there are other variations. Thus, ὁπόσοι μὲν . . . οὗτοι μὲν . . . ὁπόσοι δὲ . . . τούτους ὁρῶ X. A. 3.1.43, cp. X. O. 4.7, P. A. 28e.

2910

A clause with μέν is often followed by a contrasted clause without δέ but with a particle containing an element of opposition, as πρῶτον μὲν . . . ἔπειτα . . . εἶτα.

2911

A shift in the construction may cause δέ to be omitted (S. Ant. 1199).

2912

μέν after an emphatic demonstrative may resume μέν of the antecedent clause (D. 2.18).

2913

μὲν . . . τε (and even καί) is used where the second clause is merely added instead of being coördinated by means of δέ. Thus,

.

2914

Position of μέν (and δέ).—μέν and δέ are commonly placed next to the words they contrast, and take precedence over other postpositive particles. But when two words belong closely together, μέν and δέ are placed between. Thus, when nouns with the article are contrasted, μέν and δέ stand after the article; if the nouns depend on prepositions μέν and δέ stand after the preposition and before the article.

a. But this rule may be neglected in order to emphasize the preceding word, as τὰ μὲν ἀνθρώπινα παρέντες, τὰ δαιμόνια δὲ σκοποῦντες neglecting human affairs, but speculating on things divine X. M. 1.1.12,

.

b. If the noun has no article and is governed by a preposition, δέ usually takes the third place.

c. Postponement of δέ (and some other postpositive particles) to the fourth place is only apparent after an introductory vocative, which is not regarded as forming an integral part of the sentence.

2915

μέν and δέ are sometimes referred to the entire clause or to the predicate and not to the words that are opposed to each other. This arrangement is often adopted to preserve the symmetry of the juxtaposed clause. μέν and δέ are thus often placed after personal or demonstrative pronouns. Thus, ἔλεγε μὲν ὡς τὸ πολύ, τοῖς δὲ βουλομένοις ἐξῆν ἀκούειν Socrates for the most part was wont to talk, while any who chose could listen X. M. 1.1.10, πῶς ἂν πολλοὶ μὲν ἐπεθύ̄μουν τυραννεῖν . . . ; πῶς δὲ πάντες ἐζήλουν ἂν τοὺς τυράννους; why should many desire to possess despotic power? why should everybody envy despotic rulers? X. Hi. 1.9 (for πάντες δὲ πῶς ἐζήλουν ἄν). Cp. ἐν μὲν τούτοις . . . ἐν ἐκείνοις δέ Lyc. 140, περὶ αὑτῶν μὲν . . . περὶ δὲ τῶν δεσποτῶν L. 7.35, etc.

a. The transposition is often designed to produce a chiastic (3020) order, as

(here οὐδέν and πολλά are brought close together).

2916

In poetry μέν and δέ often have a freer position than in prose. δέ may often come third when an emphatic word is placed before it, and even fourth.

2917

μέντοι (postpositive) from μέν (= μήν, 2895) + τοί, is an asseverative and adversative particle.

2918

Asseverative μέντοι certainly, surely, of course, in truth is very common in replies, where it expresses positive, eager, or reflective assent. Often with νὴ (μὰ) Δία. Thus, ἐγώ; σὺ μέντοι I? certainly, you Ar. Eq. 168, τί γάρ, ἔφη, . . . μέμνησαι ἐκεῖνα . . . ; ναὶ μὰ Δία . . . μέμνημαι μέντοι τοιαῦτα ἀκούσᾱς σου well then, said he, do you recall those matters; Yes, by Zeus, certainly I do recall that I heard things to that effect from you X. C. 1.6.6, ἀληθέστατα μέντοι λέγεις well, certainly you say what is very true P. Soph. 245b.

μέντοι may strengthen asseverations or emphasize questions; as

; often with demonstrative pronouns, as ὦ τοῦτο μέντοι νὴ Δία αὐτοῖσιν πιθοῦ oh, by Zeus do oblige them in this Ar. Aves 661.

a. Asseverative μέντοι in combinations, e.g.:

ἀλλὰ μέντοι but surely, but in fact (in ἀλλὰ . . . μέντοι, μέντοι refers to the preceding word).

καὶ . . . μέντοι and . . . indeed, and . . . in fact, and . . . moreover, as

.

ου᾽ μέντοι no indeed (also adversative: yet not).

2919

Adversative μέντοι however, yet often marks a contrast or a transition; as

. μέντοι γε is stronger. μὲν . . . μέντοι is much stronger than μὲν . . . δέ, as . On ου᾽ μέντοι ἀλλά ( γε ) see 2767.

2920

μήν (postpositive): (1) asseverative, in truth, surely; (2) adversative, especially after a negative, yet, however. The forms μήν (Hom., Att.), μά̄ν (Hom., Lesb., Dor., lyric parts of tragedy), μέν truly (Hom., Att.) and μά in oaths are all connected. μήν emphasizes either a whole statement or a single word.

; , εἰ δ᾽ ἄγε μήν come now, on then A 302, .

2921

Combinations of μήν:

ἀλλὰ μήν ( . . . γε ) but surely; but yet; nay, indeed; well, in truth. Often used to add something of greater importance, or in transitions when a new idea is opposed to the foregoing. ἀλλὰ μήν is often separated by a negative.

ἦ μήν verily, verily. Often to introduce an oath or a threat.

καὶ μήν and verily or and yet according to the context. καὶ μήν frequently introduces a new fact or thought and hence often denotes transition, sometimes opposition (further, however, and yet). In tragedy this formula is used to mark the beginning of a new scene, as when the arrival of a newcomer is thus signalized (but here comes); as

. In replies, καὶ μήν usually confirms the last remark, accedes to a request, or denotes hearty assent; sometimes there is an adversative sense (and yet; and (yet) surely; oh, but). In enumerations, καὶ μήν adds a new fact (and besides).

και μὴν . . . γε in transitions or enumerations marks something of still greater importance; but it is not so strong as καὶ μὲν δή. Here γέ emphasizes the word or words with which it is immediately connected. In replies, and indeed, and yet or oh, but; as

.

καὶ μὴν καί (neg. καὶ μὴν οὐδέ) and in truth also.

ου᾽ μήν surely not, ου᾽ μὴν ἀλλά nevertheless (2767), ου᾽ μὴν οὐδέ nor again (2768), οὐδὲ μήν and certainly not.

τί μήν ; lit. what indeed (quid uero), as ἀλλὰ τί μὴν δοκεῖς; but what in truth is your opinion? P. Th. 162b. τί μήν; standing alone, has the force of naturally, of course. Thus, λέγουσιν ἡμᾶς ὡς ὀλωλότας, τί μήν; they speak of us as dead, and why should they not? A. Ag. 672. Often in Plato to indicate assent. τί μὴν οὔ ; (why indeed not=) of course I do.

2922

ναί (cp. Lat. nae) asseverative (truly, yea), with the accusative in oaths where it is usually followed by μά (1596 b). ναί yes, in answers, is found only in Attic.

2923

νή (cp. Lat. neē) asseverative (truly, yea), with the accusative in oaths, and only in an affirmative sense. νή is found only in Attic. See 1596 b.

2924

νῦν now, at present often has a causal sense, as νῦν δέ but as the case stands, as it is; often to mark reality in contrast to an assumed case.

2925

νῡνί̄ (νῦν + deictic ῑ, 333 g) is stronger than νῦν: even now, at this moment; rarely in a causal sense.

2926

νύ̆ν (enclitic; lyric, tragic, Herodotus, rare and suspected in Homer), a weakened form of νῦν, is rarely temporal, usually inferential, as now is used for then, therefore. νύν thus marks the connection of the speaker's thought with the situation in which he is placed. It is commonly used after imperatives, prohibitive and hortatory subjunctives. Thus,

. In Xenophon and Plato νυν is written by some editors, where the Mss. have νῦν (X. C. 4.2.37, H. 4. 1. 39).

2927

νύ̄ν (enclitic) is adopted by some scholars in Attic tragedy where a long syllable is required (S. O. T. 644). Others write νῦν (with the force of νύ̆ν).

2928

νύ̆ (enclitic; Epic and Cyprian), a still weaker form of νῦν, and less emphatic than δή. It is common in questions and appeals; less frequent in statements; as τίς νυ; who now? Also after other particles, as καί νύ κε, ἦ ῥά νυ.

2929

ὅπως , originally a relative adverb meaning how, is derived from the relative particle σϝοδ (with which Eng. so is connected), to which the indefinite πώς has been added. Hom. ὅππως from σϝοδ-πως, as ὅττι from σϝοδ-τι (81 D 2).

a. The adverbial meaning of ὅπως is still seen in its use as an indefinite relative and as an indirect interrogative; and by the fact that in its place ὅπῃ, ὅτῳ τρόπῳ, ἐξ ὅτου τρόπου are sometimes used. By association with the subjunctive ὅπως became a conjunction (cp. μή πως) used with or without ἄν in final clauses (see 2196, 2201). On the use as a conjunction in object clauses after verbs of effort and of fear, see 2211, 2228. So in dependent statements ὅπως passed from how into that (2578 d).

2930

οὐδέ ( μηδέ ) is an adverb and a conjunction, and is to be broken up into the negative οὐ (μή) and δέ meaning and, even, also , or but.

2942

οὔτε (μήτε) is usually repeated: οὔτε . . . οὔτε ( μήτε . . . μήτε ) neither . . . nor (nec . . . nec). οὔτε . . . οὔτε is the negative of τὲ . . . τέ, and unites single words or clauses.

, .

After a negative clause:

.

a. οὔτε . . . μήτε is found when each negative is determined by a different construction, as

.

b. When οὔτε . . . οὔτε stands between οὐδὲ . . . οὐδέ the members thus correlated are subordinate to those expressed by οὐδὲ . . . οὐδέ. Cp. Aes. 1.19.

2943

Sometimes the first οὔτε is omitted in poetry: νόσοι δ᾽ οὔτε γῆρας disease nor old age Pindar, Pyth. 10. 41,

. Cp. “my five wits nor my five senses” (Shakesp.).

2944

For the first οὔτε the poets sometimes have οὐ, as

.

2945

οὔτε . . . τε´ on the one hand not . . . but, not only not . . . but (cp. neque . . . et). The τέ clause often denotes the contrary of that set forth in the οὔτε clause (so far from). Thus, οὔτε διενοήθην πώποτε ἀποστερῆσαι ἀποδώσω τε so far from ever thinking to deprive them of their pay I will give it to them X. A. 7.7.48, ὤμοσαν . . . μήτε προδώσειν ἀλλήλους σύμμαχοί τε ἔσεσθαι they swore that they would not betray one another and that they would be allies 2. 2. 8. So οὔτε . . . οὔτε . . . τέ. τὲ . . . οὔτε is not used.

a. Sometimes the negative may be added in the τέ clause:

.

2946

οὔτε . . . τε οὐ S. Ant. 763. οὔτε . . . τε . . . οὔτε E. H. F. 1341.

2947

οὔτε . . . δέ is used when the second clause is opposed to the first; as

. Cp. E. Supp. 223, P. R. 388e, 389 a.

2948

οὔτε . . . οὐ is rare in prose; as

. Cp. S. Ant. 249. οὔτε . . . οὐ . . . οὔτε A. Pr. 479. ου᾽ . . . οὔτε is generally changed to οὐ . . . οὐδέ in Attic prose.

2949

οὔτε . . . οὐδέ corresponds to the sequence of τὲ . . . δέ in affirmative clauses. The emphatic οὐδέ here adds a new negative idea as after any other preceding negative; and is most common after οὔτε . . . οὔτε: neither . . . nor . . . no, nor yet (nor . . . either). οὐδέ is often followed by an emphasizing particle, as αὖ, γέ, μήν. Thus,

, .

2950

A subordinate clause with οὐδέ may come between οὔτε . . . οὔτε. Thus,

.

2951

οὐκοῦν interrogative: not therefore? not then? (nonne, igitur? nonne ergo?). Here the stress lies on the inferential οὖν and an affirmative answer is expected as a matter of course. οὐκοῦν stands at the beginning of its clause.

οὐκοῦν . . . εὖ σοι δοκοῦσι βουλεύεσθαι; πρός γε ἃ ὁρῶσι do you not then think that they lay their plans well? Yes, with regard to what they see X. C. 7.1.8.

a. When a negative answer is expected we have οὐκοῦν οὐ (P. Phil. 43d).

b. οὐκοῦν and οὖν stand in parallel questions in X. A. 1.6.7-8.

c. Some scholars write οὔκουν or οὐκ οὖν for οὐκοῦν interrogative (and inferential).

2952

οὐκοῦν inferential: then, well then, therefore, accordingly (ergo, igitur). Inferential οὐκοῦν was developed, probably in colloquial speech, from the interrogative use, the speaker anticipating the affirmative answer to his question and emphasizing only the inference. From the negative question all that was left was an expression of his own opinion on the part of the speaker. οὐκοῦν has become so completely equivalent to οὖν that a negative has to be added if one is required.

οὐκοῦν, ὅταν δὴ μὴ σθένω, πεπαύσομαι well then, when my strength fails, I shall cease S. Ant. 91,

. οὐκοῦν is used even with imperatives; as .

a. Editors often differ whether, in certain cases, οὐκοῦν is interrogative or inferential.

2953

οὔκουν not then, therefore not, so not, at any rate . . . not, surely not (non igitur, non ergo). Here οὐ is strongly emphasized, and οὖν is either confirmative or inferential. οὔκουν is usually placed at the beginning of its clause.

a. In emphatic negative answers; as

.

b. In continuous discourse (P. L. 807a).

c. οὔκουν . . . γε returns a negative answer with qualified acquiescence in a preceding statement. Thus, τούτων ἄρα Ζεύς ἐστιν ἀσθενέστερος; οὔκουν ἂν ἐκφύγοι

.

d. In impatient or excited questions (non? non igitur?). Thus, οὔκουν ἐρεῖς ποτ᾽, εἶτ᾽ ἀπαλλαχθεὶς ἄπει; wilt thou not speak and so depart and be gone? S. Ant. 244.

2954

οὐκ ( μὴ ) οὖν is to be distinguished from οὐκοῦν or οὔκουν. Thus,

(μὴ οὖν 8. 91).

a. Hdt. has οὐκ ὦν (sometimes written οὔκων) to emphasize an idea opposed to what goes before (non tamen). Thus, ταῦτα λέγοντες τοὺς Κροτωνιήτᾱς οὐκ ὦν ἔπειθον by these words they did not however persuade the men of Croton 3. 137.

2955

οὖν (Ionic, Lesbic, Doric ὦν), a postpositive particle, is either confirmatory or inferential. οὖν points to something already mentioned or known or to the present situation.

2956

Confirmatory οὖν in fact, at all events, in truth belongs properly to the entire clause, but usually, for purposes of emphasis, attaches itself to some other particle, to a relative pronoun, or at times to other words (P. A. 22b). On γοῦν, see 2830; on μὲν οὖν, 2901; on τοιγαροῦν, 2987. In some of its combinations with other particles οὖν may be inferential or transitional.

2957

ἀλλ᾽ οὖν or ἀλλ᾽ οὖν . . . γε (stronger than δ᾽ οὖν) well, at all events; well, certainly, for that matter; as ἀλλ᾽ οὖν πονηροί γε φαινόμενοι well, at all events they look like sorry fellows, that they are X. C. 1.4.19, ἀλλ᾽ οὖν τοσοῦτόν γ᾽ ἴσθι well, at any rate you know this at least S. Ph. 1305. ἀλλ᾽ οὖν may stand in the apodosis to an hypothetical proposition (P. Ph. 91b).

2958

γὰρ οὖν (and καὶ γὰρ οὖν ) for in fact (indeed, in any case); as

, .

Also to mark a consequence (X. A. 1.9.11), and in replies, as οὐ γὰρ οὖν P. Phae. 277e, and also when the speaker repeats an important word of his interlocutor, as φημὶ γὰρ οὖν P. G. 466e.

2959

δ᾽ οὖν but certainly, at all events, anyhow, be that as it may with or without μέν in the preceding clause. Here οὖν shows that an unquestionable fact is to be set forth in its own clause; while the adversative δέ marks opposition to what has preceded and implies that the foregoing statement is uncertain and liable to dispute: ‘be that true or not, at any rate what follows is certainly true.’ δ᾽ οὖν is used (a) to set aside conjecture, surmise, or hearsay; (b) to resume the main argument after long digression, and to cut short further discussion and come to the point; (c), with imperatives, to denote assent marked by unwillingness, impatience, or indifference. Thus, (a) εἰ μὲν δὴ δίκαια ποιήσω, οὐκ οἶδα· αἱρήσομαι δ᾽ οὖν ὑ̄μᾶς whether I shall do what is right (or not), I do not know; be that as it may, I will choose you X. A. 1.3.5, καὶ ἐλέγετο Κύ̄ρω δοῦναι πολλὰ χρήματα. τῇ δ᾽ οὖν στρατιᾷ τότε ἀπέδωκε Κῦρος μισθὸν τεττάρων μηνῶν and she is said to have given Cyrus a large sum; at any rate Cyrus then gave the army four months' pay 1. 2. 12; (b) cp. T. 1.3, 6. 15, 8. 81. Resumptive δ᾽ οὖν may also set aside doubtful statements. (c)

, ἔστω δ᾽ οὖν ὅπως ὑ̄μῖν φίλον however, be it as you wish S. O. C. 1205.

ει᾽ δ᾽ οὖν = but if indeed, but if in point of fact; as εἰ δ᾽ οὖν τι κἀ̄κτρέποιτο τοῦ πρόσθεν λόγου but if he should deviate at all from his former statement S. O. T. 851.

2960

δὴ οὖν certainly then; cp. οὖν δή . Thus, τί δὴ οὖν; or τί οὖν δή; well then pray? πῶς δὴ οὖν; how then pray? οὖν δῆτα really then.

2961

εἴτε οὖν, οὔτε οὖν: in alternative clauses οὖν (indeed) is added to one or both clauses as emphasis may be desired: εἴτε οὖν . . . εἴτε whether indeed . . . or, εἴτε . . . εἴτε οὖν whether . . . or indeed, or εἴτε οὖν . . . εἴτε οὖν whether indeed . . . or indeed. So also in exclusive clauses: οὔτε ( μήτε ) . . . οὔτε ( μήτε ) οὖν neither . . . nor yet, οὔτε ( μήτε ) οὖν . . . οὔτε ( μήτε ) neither indeed . . . nor.

2962

οὖν often follows interrogative pronouns and adverbs (in dialogue); as τίς οὖν ; who pray? τί οὖν , generally with the aorist, in impatient questions asks why that which is desired has not been done (2197 c).

2963

οὖν affixed to a relative pronoun has a generalizing force and makes it indefinite (339 e). Such indefinite relative pronouns are construed like the indefinite τὶς or demonstratives; and do not introduce relative clauses (unlike whosoever, etc., which are both indefinite and relative).

So with adverbs (346 c), as ὁπωσοῦν in any way, no matter how (= utique not = utcunque). Thus, οὐδ᾽ ὁπωσοῦν not even in the slightest degree.

a. Simply placed after relatives οὖν has a strengthening force; as ὥσπερ οὖν as in fact (often in parentheses), οἷός περ οὖν just as in fact.

2964

Inferential οὖν therefore, accordingly (igitur, ergo), usually classed as a conjunction, signifies that something follows from what precedes. Inferential οὖν marks a transition to a new thought and continues a narrative (often after ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ὅτε), resumes an interrupted narration (T. 3.42, X. C. 3.3.9), and in general states a conclusion or inference. It stands alone or in conjunction with other particles. Thus, ἀναρχίᾳ ἂν καὶ ἀταξίᾳ ἐνόμιζον ἡμᾶς ἀπολέσθαι. δεῖ οὖν πολὺ μὲν τοὺς ἄρχοντας ἐπιμελεστέρους γενέσθαι τοὺς νῦν τῶν πρόσθεν they were of the opinion that we would be overcome through our lack of leaders and discipline. It is imperative therefore that the leaders we have now should be much more watchful than those we had before X. A. 3.2.29.

a. The inferential and transitional use is derived from the confirmative meaning, and is scarcely marked until Herodotus and the Attic poets. Cp. μὲν οὖν. ἐπεὶ οὖν in Hom. is sometimes used in transitions.

2965

πέρ (postpositive and enclitic) very, just, even. Cp. Epic πέρι very much, and περί in composition. In Attic prose πέρ is common only with relatives (338 c) and conjunctions.

ὅσπερ the very one who (i.e. none other), οἷός περ just such, ἔνθα περ just where, ὥσπερ just as, in the very way in which, (sometimes not very different from ὡς, to which it is related as ὅσπερ to ὅς), εἴπερ if really. καίπερ (Hom. καὶ . . . περ) however much, though, Epic ἠέ περ just as.

a. After other words especially in Epic and Lyric and in Aeschylus; as

, μάχετ᾽, ἀχνύμενός περ ἑταίρου he fought, (though) sore grieving for his comrade P 459, ὀψέ περ howbeit late Pind. Nem. 3. 80.

2966

πλήν an adverb, is used (a) as a preposition with the genitive (1700) meaning except, save, when that which is excepted is a single substantival idea; (b) as a conjunction, except, except that, save that, unless, only, but (often almost = ἀλλά).

ἀφειστήκεσαν . . . πᾶσαι πλὴν Μῑλήτου all the Ionic cities had revolted except Miletus X. A. 1.1.6; οὐδεὶς ἀπῄει πρὸς βασιλέᾱ, πλὴν Ὀρόντᾱς ἐπεχείρησε no one went off to the king save that Orontas made the attempt 1. 9. 29,

. A substantive-equivalent may follow πλήν, not in the genitive, but in the case required by the verb of the sentence, as .

a. πλὴν οὐ only not, except (2753); πλὴν ἤ except, as οὐ γὰρ ἄλλῳ γ᾽ ὑπακούσαιμεν . . . πλὴν ἢ Προδίκῳ we would not listen to any one (else) except Prodicus Ar. Nub. 361; πλὴν ὅτι except that; πλὴν εἰ except if, cp. εἰ μή (nisi si), after a negative πλὴν εἰ μή; often with the verb omitted, as

.

b. πλήν may be followed by the infinitive, as τί σοι πέπρᾱκται πρᾶγμα πλὴν τεύχειν κακά; what hast thou accomplished save to work mischief? A. Eum. 125.

2967

τέ and (postpositive, and enclitic as -que) is generally used with a correlative conjunction.

2968

τέ alone sometimes in prose links whole clauses or sentences which serve to explain, amplify, supplement, or to denote a consequence of, what precedes (and thus, and therefore, and as a result). Thus, ὁ δ᾽ ἐχαλέπαινεν . . ., ἐκέλευσέ τ᾽ αὐτὸν ἐκ τοῦ μέσου ἐξίστασθαι but he was angry and (therefore) ordered him to get out of the way X. A. 1.5.14. Cp. 2978.

a. This use of τέ (τέ consequential) is quite common in Herodotus and Thucydides, rather rare in Xenophon, and infrequent in other prose writers. It occurs also in poetry.

N.—In poetry τέ alone (cp. -que) often connects single parallel nouns and pronouns so that the two connected ideas form a whole; as

. In prose, participles and infinitives are occasionally linked by τέ; as .

2969

τέ (or καί) meaning both may be followed by asyndeton (S. Ant. 296).

2970

Homer often, and Herodotus sometimes, adds τέ to relative pronouns and conjunctions introducing subordinate clauses, which are usually postpositive. So after ὅς, ὅσος, οἷος, ὡς, ὅτε, ἐπεί, ἔνθα, ὅθι, etc. Thus, φίληθεν ἐκ Διός, ὅς τε θεοῖσι . . . ἀνάσσει they were loved by Zeus, who rules over the gods B 669. This untranslatable τέ is probably connective (not indefinite), and belongs to the whole clause. It has the effect of showing that its clause corresponds in some way to the preceding clause. ὅς τε is found in lyric poetry and in the lyric parts of tragedy (rarely in dialogue parts). ὥστε, οἷός τε became common.

2971

This connective force is also seen when τέ stands in the principal clause, sometimes both in the principal and in the subordinate clause, e.g. ὅς κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται, μάλα τ᾽ ἔκλυον αὐτοῦ whosoever obeys the gods, him especially they hear A 218, ὅππῃ τ᾽ ἰ̄θύ̄σῃ, τῇ τ᾽ εἴκουσι στίχες ἀνδρῶν wheresoever he rushes, there the ranks of men give way M 48.

2972

Homer has τέ after the coördinating conjunctions καί, δέ, οὐδέ, ἀλλά, ἤ; after ἦ, μέν, πέρ, γάρ, and before ἄρα in questions.

2973

τὲ . . . τέ usually serves to connect clauses, less frequently single words. In English and often suffices, but as . . . so is often in place. τὲ . . . τέ is more common in poetry than in prose, but in prose more common than τέ standing alone. Thus, πατὴρ ἀνδρῶν τε θεῶν τε father of men and gods A 544,

, .

a. One clause may be negative, the other affirmative (T. 2.22); but we usually have οὔτε instead of τὲ οὐ.

2974

τὲ καί or τὲ . . . καί often serves to unite complements, both similars and opposites. τὲ . . . καί is not used when one clause is subordinate to another. The two words or clauses thus united may show a contrast, or the second may be stronger than the first. τέ is commonly separated from καί by one or more words. τὲ . . . καί is weaker than καὶ . . . καί, and will not easily bear the translation both . . . and. It is rare in colloquial Attic. Thus,

, κάλλιστόν τε καὶ ἄριστον fairest and best 2. 1. 9, , , . Clauses dissimilar in form may be linked by τὲ . . . καί; as .

2975

τὲ . . . καί is often used of actions coincident in time, or of actions standing in a causal relation to each other; as ἡμέρᾱ τε σχεδὸν ὑπέφαινε καὶ εἰς τὸ μέσον ἧκον οἱ ἄρχοντες day was just breaking and (= when) the officers came into the centre of the camp X. A. 3.3.1 (temporal parataxis; cp. 2169).

2976

τὲ . . . καί is sometimes used of alternatives (for εἴτε . . . εἴτε). Thus,

. Here καὶ . . . καί is more common (2877).

2977

We find τὲ . . . καὶ . . . τέ, τὲ . . . καὶ . . . τὲ . . . τέ . . . ῾τἔ, τὲ . . . τὲ . . . καί, τὲ . . . τὲ . . . καὶ . . . τέ, τὲ . . . καὶ . . . καὶ . . . τέ . But in prose τέ before and after καί is rare.

2978

When τέ follows τὲ . . . καί, τέ does not point back to καί, but denotes an addition to the preceding member (and besides). Thus,

. Cp. 2968.

2979

καί τε is Epic; elsewhere the καί of καὶ . . . τε belongs to the whole clause (A. Ch. 252).

2980

ἄλλως τε καί both in other ways and especially, on other grounds and particularly, or simply especially. This combination usually stands before conditional clauses (or clauses with a conditional participle), causal, and temporal clauses. Thus,

, . Cp. .

2981

τὲ . . . δέ is used when a writer begins as if he were going simply to add the second member (both . . . and), but instead contrasts it with the first. This combination of copulative and adversative particles is often rendered less harsh by the form of the δέ clause and by other reasons. (a) The δέ clause contains a καί; as ἅμα (ἔπειτα, ἔτι, πολλαχοῦ, ὡσαύτως) δὲ καί; e.g. ἔν τε τῇ τῶν ἐπῶν ποιήσει πολλαχοῦ δὲ καὶ ἄλλοθι, lit. both in the construction of epic poetry but also in many other cases P. R. 394c. (b) The second clause contains a formula with δέ but not with καί; as ἔτι δέ, τί δέ, τὸ δὲ κεφάλαιον, μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα. Thus, πρότερόν τε . . . νῦν δέ (both) formerly . . . but now X. H. 7.1.24. Cp. P. L. 664b, 947 a, 967 d. (c) After a considerable interval occasioned by the extension of the τέ clause, it is natural to resume with δέ. So T. 6.83. 1, X. A. 7.8.11, X. C. 2.1.22, L. 2.17.

2982

Rare combinations are, e.g.:

ἢ . . . τέ instead of ἢ . . . ἤ. Thus, ἢ παῖδες νεαροὶ χῆραί τε γυναῖκες either young children and (= or) widowed women B 289. τὲ . . . ἤ is often emended in X. O. 20.12, P. Men. 95b.

τὲ . . . οὐδέ ( μηδέ ) with τέ instead of οὔτε (μήτε); as E. I. T. 697, P. Pol. 271e. τέ is not followed by οὔτε (μήτε).

2983

Position of τέ.—τέ usually follows the word with which the sentence or sentence-part to be connected is most concerned. Apart from many irregularities there are certain exceptions to this rule which are commonly observed.

a. τέ may come between two words which go closely together, as between article (preposition, attributive genitive) and its noun. Thus,

, (for πρὸς λουτρά τε). But .

b. τέ connecting an entire clause stands as near as possible to the beginning. Cp. X. A. 1.8.3.

c. τέ may stand after a word or expression which, though common to two members of a clause, is placed either at the beginning (especially after a preposition) or in the second member. Thus, ἅ τε δεῖ φίλια καὶ (ἃ δεῖ)

πολέμια ἡμᾶς νομίζειν

what we must consider as belonging to our friends and what to our enemies

(X. C. 5.2.21)

,

ἔν τε τῷ θερμοτέρῳ καὶ ψῡχροτέρῳ

in the hotter and colder

(P. Phil. 24b)

,

ἅπᾱσι φίλον ἄνδρα τε σοφώτατον

a man dear to all and most wise

(Ar. Vesp. 1277)

.

d. The freer position of τέ is often due to the fact that several words are taken as forming a single notion. Thus,

ἡ καλλίστη δὴ πολῑτείᾱ τε καὶ ὁ κάλλιστος ἀνήρ

the very noblest constitution and the noblest man

(P. R. 562a)

.

2984

τοί (postpositive and enclitic) in truth, surely, doubtless, mark you, be assured, you (must) know, was originally the dative of feeling (1486) of σύ.

a. This τοί (Sanskrit tē), found in all dialects, is to be distinguished from Doric τοί ( = σοί) from τνοι (Skt. tvē´). τοί may thus occur in the same sentence with σοί; as τοιαῦτά τοί σοι . . . λέγω S. fr. 25.

2985

τοί is often used in statements of a general truth and in expressions of personal conviction (sometimes with a tone of hesitation); in remarks of a confidential nature; to introduce an explanation; and in general where the special attention of the person addressed is desired. τοί often gives an easy and familiar tone to a reply. Thus,

, ἀεί τοι ὁ Κέβης λόγους τινὰς ἀνερευνᾷ for Cebes, you know, is always investigating some speculation or other P. Ph. 63a.

a. τοί may emphasize particular words, as ἐγώ τοι, ἐμοί τοι, σέ τοι; and other words not pronouns.

2986

τοί is frequently used after other particles, as ἀλλά, γάρ, γέ, δή (and γέ τοι δή, cp. δή τοι . . . γε), ἐπεί because, μή, οὐ (οὔτοι). On ἤτοι, see 2858; on καίτοι, 2893; on μέντοι, 2917.

2987

The inferential conjunctions τοιγάρ, τοιγαροῦν, τοιγάρτοι, τοίνυν contain τοί, the locative of the demonstrative τό, which case had the meaning of τῷ (τῶ) therefore, on this account, so lit. by that, therein. (This τῷ is chiefly Epic, and stands at the beginning of the verse. Cp.

, S. Ph. 142.)

τοιγάρ (prepositive; Ionic and poetic) therefore, wherefore, so then, that is surely the reason why (often to announce a purpose).

τοιγαροῦν, τοιγάρτοι (both prepositive) are more emphatic than τοιγάρ. The final syllable of τοιγάρτοι is the τοί of 2984.

τοίνυν (postpositive and post-Homeric; -νυν 2927) is transitional (now then, further) or inferential (therefore, accordingly; less emphatic than τοιγάρ). τοι<*>νυν is common when a speaker refers to something present in his mind, when he continues or resumes what he has been saying, and when he passes to a new aspect of a subject. It is often found with imperatives (σκόπει τοίνυν P. Cr. 51c).

2988

Demonstrative ὥς (also accented ὡς, ὧς) thus, so is originally an ablative from the demonstrative stem ὁ- (from σο-), from which come the article and ὅς he in καὶ ὅς, ἦ δ᾽ ὅς (1113). For the -ς, see 341. Cp. also ὧ-δε thus.

So καὶ ὥς even so, nevertheless, οὐδ᾽ (μηδ᾽) ὥς not even thus, in no wise, ὡς αὔτως (ὡσαύτως) in the same way, just so (ablative of ὁ αὐτός). ὡς ἑτέρως (lit. thus otherwise, in that other way) quite otherwise and ὡς ἀληθῶς (lit. thus truly) in very truth also probably belong here.

a. In some cases it is uncertain whether ὡς is demonstrative or relative; e.g. ὡς in exclamatory clauses. Cp. 2998, 3001.

2989

Relative ὡς as, how is originally an ablative (in which way) from the relative stem [ιγλιδε]ο-, whence come also ὅς, ἥ, ὅ. For the -ς, see 341. Relative ὡς has various uses as an adverb or a conjunction, all of which represent the primitive meaning.