EUPHONY OF VOWELS
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CONTACT OF VOWELS AND HIATUS
46
Attic more than any other dialect disliked the immediate succession of two vowel sounds in adjoining syllables. To avoid such succession, which often arose in the formation and inflection of words, various means were employed: contraction (48 ff.), when the vowels collided in the middle of a word; or, when the succession occurred between two words (hiatus), by crasis (62 ff.), elision (70 ff.), aphaeresis (76), or by affixing a movable consonant at the end of the former word (134).
47
Hiatus is usually avoided in prose writers by elision (70 ff.); but in cases where elision is not possible, hiatus is allowed to remain by different writers in different degrees, commonly after short words, such as ὦ, εἰ, ἤ, καί, μή, and the forms of the article.
47 D
Hiatus is allowed in certain cases.
1. In epic poetry: a. After ι and υ: ἄξονι ἀμφίς, σύ ἐσσι.
b. After a long final syllable having the rhythmic accent: μοι ἐθέλουσα ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘).
c. When a long final syllable is shortened before an initial vowel (weak , or improper, hiatus): ἀκτῇ ἐφ᾽ ὑψηλῇ ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]¯[macrdot]).
d. When the concurrent vowels are separated by the caesura; often after the fourth foot: ἀλλ᾽ ἄγ᾽ ἐμῶν ὀχέων ἐπιβήσεο, ι ὄφρα ἴδηαι; very often between the short syllables of the third foot (the feminine caesura): as, ἀλλ᾽ ἀκέουσα κάθησο, ι ἐμῷ δ᾽ ἐπιπείθεο μύ̄θῳ; rarely after the first foot: αὐτὰρ ὁ ἔγνω A 333.
e. Where ϝ has been lost.
2. In Attic poetry hiatus is allowable, as in 1 c, and after τί what? εὖ well, interjections, περί concerning, and in οὐδὲ (μηδὲ) εἷς (for οὐδείς, μηδείς no one).
CONTRACTION
48
Contraction unites in a single long vowel or diphthong two vowels or a vowel and a diphthong standing next each other in successive syllables in the same word.
a. Occasion for contraction is made especially by the concurrence of vowel sounds which were once separated by ς, [υγλιδε] (ϝ), and [ιγλιδε] (17, 20 a).
The following are the chief rules governing contraction:
49
(I) Two vowels which can form a diphthong (5) unite to form that diphthong: γένεϊ ῀ γένει, αἰδόϊ ῀ αἰδοῖ, κλήϊθρον ῀ κλῇθρον.
50
(II) Like Vowels.—Like vowels, whether short or long, unite in the common long; εε, οο become ει, ου (6): γέραα ῀ γέρᾱ, φιλέητε ῀ φιλῆτε; ἐφίλεε ῀ ἐφίλει, δηλόομεν ῀ δηλοῦμεν.
a. ι is rarely contracted with ι (ὀφι ¨ ιδιον ῀ ὀφί̄διον small snake) or υ with υ (ὕ̄ς son in inscriptions, from ὑ(ι)ύς ῀ υἱός, 43).
50 D
ι ¨ ι ῀ ῑ occurs chiefly in the Ionic, Doric, and Aeolic dative singular of nouns in -ις (268 D.), as in πόλιι ῀ πόλῑ; also in the optative, as in φθι-ῑ-το ῀ φθῖτο.
51
(III) Unlike Vowels.—Unlike vowels are assimilated, either the second to the first (progressive assimilation) or the first to the second (regressive assimilation).
a. An o sound always prevails over an a or e sound: ο or ω before or after α , and before η , forms ω. οε and εο form ου (a spurious diphthong, 6). Thus, τῑμάομεν ῀ τῑμῶμεν, αἰδόα ῀ αἰδῶ, ἥρωα ῀ ἥρω, τῑμάω ῀ τῑμῶ, δηλόητε ῀ δηλῶτε; but φιλέομεν ῀ φιλοῦμεν, δηλόετον ῀ δηλοῦτον.
b. When α and ε or η come together the vowel sound that precedes prevails, and we have ᾱ or η : ὅραε ῀ ὅρᾱ, τῑμάητε ῀ τί̄μᾶτε, ὄρεα ῀ ὄρη.
c. υ rarely contracts: υ ¨ ι ῀ ῡ in ἰχθύ̄διον from ἰχθυίδιον small fish; υ ¨ ε strictly never becomes ῡ (273).
52
(IV) Vowels and Diphthongs.—A vowel disappears before a diphthong beginning with the same sound: μνάαι ῀ μναῖ, φιλέει ῀ φιλεῖ, δηλόοι ῀ δηλοῖ.
53
A vowel before a diphthong not beginning with the same sound generally contracts with the first vowel of the diphthong; the last vowel, if ι, is subscript (5): τῑμάει ῀ τῑμᾷ, τῑμάοιμεν ῀ τῑμῷμεν, λείπεαι ῀ λείπῃ, μεμνηοίμην ῀ μεμνῴμην.
a. But ε ¨ οι becomes οι : φιλέοι ῀ φιλοῖ; ο ¨ ει, ο ¨ ῃ become οι : δηλόει ῀ δηλοῖ, δηλόῃ ῀ δηλοῖ.
54
Spurious ει and ου are treated like ε and ο: τῑμάειν ῀ τῑμᾶν, δηλόειν ῀ δηλοῦν, τῑμάουσι ῀ τῑμῶσι (but τῑμάει ῀ τῑμᾷ and δηλόει ῀ δηλοῑ, since ει is here genuine; 6).
55
(V) Three Vowels.—When three vowels come together, the last two unite first, and the resulting diphthong may be contracted with the first vowel: thus, τῑμᾷ is from τῑμα-ῃ out of τῑμα-ε(σ)αι; but Περικλέους from Περικλέεος.
55 D
In Hom. δεῖος of fear from δέε(σ)-ος the first two vowels unite.
56
Irregularities.—A short vowel preceding α or any long vowel or diphthong, in contracts of the first and second declensions, is apparently absorbed (235, 290): χρύ̄σεα ῀ χρῡσᾶ (not χρῡσῆ), ἁπλόα ῀ ἁπλᾶ (not ἁπλῶ), by analogy to the α which marks the neuter plural, χρῡσέαις ῀ χρῡσαῖς. (So ἡμέας ῀ ἡμᾶς to show the -ας of the accus. pl.) Only in the singular of the first declension does εᾱ become η (or ᾱ after a vowel or ρ): χρῡσέᾱς ῀ χρῡσῆς, ἀργυρέᾳ ῀ ἀργυρᾷ. In the third declension εεα becomes εᾱ (265); ιεα or υεα becomes ιᾱ (υᾱ) or ιη (υη). See 292 d.
Various special cases will be considered under their appropriate sections.
57
The contraction of a long vowel with a short vowel sometimes does not occur by reason of analogy. Thus, νηΐ (two syllables) follows νηός, the older form of νεώς (275). Sometimes the long vowel was shortened (39) or transfer of quantity took place (34).
58
Vowels that were once separated by ς or [ιγλιδε] (20) are often not contracted in dissyllabic forms, but contracted in polysyllabic forms. Thus, θε(σ)ός god, but Θουκῡδίδης Thucydides (θεός ¨ κῦδος glory).
TABLE OF VOWEL CONTRACTIONS
[After ει or ου, gen. means genuine, sp. means spurious.]
| α ¨ α | = ᾱ | γέραα | = γέρᾱ |
| ᾱ ¨ α | = ᾱ | λᾶας | = λᾶς |
| α ¨ ᾱ | = ᾱ | βεβάᾱσι | = βεβᾶσι |
| α ¨ αι | = αι | μνάαι | = μναῖ |
| α ¨ ᾳ | = ᾱͅ | μνάᾳ | = μνᾷ |
| α ¨ ε | = ᾱ | τῑμάετε | = τιμᾶτε |
| α ¨ ει (gen.) | = ᾱͅ | τῑμάει | = τῑμᾷ |
| α ¨ ει (sp.) | = ᾱ | τῑμάειν | = τῑμᾶν |
| α ¨ η | = ᾱ | τῑμάητε | = τῑμᾶτε |
| α ¨ ῃ | = ᾱͅ | τῑμάῃ | = τῑμᾷ |
| α ¨ ι | = αι | κέραϊ | = κέραι |
| ᾱ ¨ ι | = ᾱͅ | ῥᾱί̄τερος | = ῥᾴτερος |
| α ¨ ο | = ω | τῑμάομεν | = τῑμῶμεν |
| α ¨ οι | = ῳ | τῑμάοιμι | = τιμῷμι |
| α ¨ ου (sp.) | = ω | ἐτῑμάε(σ)ο | (55) |
| = ἐτῑμῶ | |||
| α ¨ ω | = ω | τῑμάω | = τῑμῶ |
| ε ¨ α | = η | τείχεα | = τείχη |
| = ᾱ | ὀστέα | = ὀστᾶ(56) | |
| ε ¨ ᾱ | = η | ἁπλέᾱ | = ἁπλῆ |
| ε ¨ αι | = ῃ | λύ̄εαι | = λύ̄ῃ |
| whence λύ̄ει | |||
| = αι | χρῡσέαις | = χρῡσαῖς | |
| (56) | |||
| ε ¨ ε | = ει (sp.) | φιλέετε | = φιλεῖτε |
| ε ¨ ει (gen.) | = ει (gen.) | φιλέει | = φιλεῖ |
| ε ¨ ει (sp.) | = ει (sp.) | φιλέειν | = φιλεῖν |
| ε ¨ η | = η | φιλέητε | = φιλῆτε |
| ε ¨ ῃ | = ῃ | φιλέῃ | = φιλῇ |
| ε ¨ ι | = ει (gen.) | γένεϊ | = γένει |
| ε ¨ ο | = ου (sp.) | φιλέομεν | = φιλοῦμεν |
| ε ¨ οι | = οι | φιλέοιτε | = φιλοῖτε |
| ε ¨ ου (sp.) | = ου | φιλέουσι | = φιλοῦσι |
| ε ¨ υ | = ευ | ἐΰ | = εὖ |
| ε ¨ ω | = ω | φιλέω | = φιλῶ |
| ε ¨ ῳ | = ῳ | χρῡσέῳ | = χρῡσῷ |
| η ¨ αι | = ῃ | λύ̄η(σ)αι | = λύῃ |
| η ¨ ε | = η | τῑμήεντος | = τῑμῆντος |
| η ¨ ει (gen.) | = ῃ | ζήει | = ζῇ |
| η ¨ ει (sp.) | = η | τῑμήεις | = τῑμῆς |
| η ¨ η | = η | φανήητε | = φανῆτε |
| η ¨ ῃ | = ῃ | ζήῃ | = ζῇ |
| η ¨ οι | = ῳ | μεμνηοίμην | = |
| μεμνῴμην | |||
| η ¨ ι | = ῃ | κληΐς | = κλῇς |
| ι ¨ ι | = ῑ | Χίιος | = Χῖος |
| ο ¨ α | = ω | αἰδόα | = αἰδῶ |
| = ᾱ | ἁπλόα | = ἁπλᾶ | |
| (56) | |||
| ο ¨ ε | = ου (sp.) | ἐδήλοε | = ἐδήλου |
| ο ¨ ει (gen.) | = οι | δηλόει | = δηλοῖ |
| ο ¨ ει (sp.) | = ου | δηλόειν | = δηλοῦν |
| ο ¨ η | = ω | δηλόητε | = δηλῶτε |
| ο ¨ ῃ | = οι | δηλόῃ | = δηλοῖ |
| = ῳ | δόῃς | = δῷς | |
| ο ¨ ι | = οι | ἠχόϊ | = ἠχοῖ |
| ο ¨ ο | = ου (sp.) | πλόος | = πλοῦς |
| ο ¨ οι | = οι | δηλόοιμεν | = δηλοῖμεν |
| ο ¨ ου (sp.) | = ου (sp.) | δηλόουσι | = δηλοῦσι |
| ο ¨ ω | = ω | δηλόω | = δηλῶ |
| ο ¨ ῳ | = ῳ | πλόῳ | = πλῷ |
| υ ¨ ι | = ῡ | ἰχθυίδιον | = ἰχθύ̄διον |
| υ ¨ υ | = ῡ | ὑύς (for υἱόσ) | = ὕ̄ς |
| ω ¨ α | = ω | ἥρωα | = ἥρω |
| ω ¨ ι | = ῳ | ἥρωι | = ἥρῳ |
| ω ¨ ω | = ω | δώω (Hom.) | = δῶ |
N.—The forms of ῥῑγόω shiver contract from the stem ῥῑγω- (yielding ω or ῳ).
59 D
Attic contracts more, Ionic less, than the other dialects. The laws of contraction often differ in the different dialects.
1. Ionic (Old and New) is distinguished by its absence of contraction. Thus, πλόος for πλοῦς voyage, τείχεα for τείχη walls, ὀστέα for ὀστᾶ bones, ἀοιδή for ᾠδή song, ἀεργός for ἀ̄ργός idle. The Mss. of Hdt. generally leave εε, εη uncontracted; but this is probably erroneous in most cases. Ionic rarely contracts where Attic does not: ὀγδώκοντα for ὀγδοήκοντα eighty.
2. εο, εω, εου generally remain open in all dialects except Attic. In Ionic εω is usually monosyllabic. Ionic (and less often Doric) may contract εο, εου to ευ: σεῦ from σέο of thee, φιλεῦσι from φιλέουσι they love.
3. αο, ᾱο, αω, ᾱω contract to ᾱ in Doric and Aeolic. Thus, Ἀτρείδᾱ from Ἀτρείδᾱο, Dor. γελᾶντι they laugh from γελάοντι, χωρᾶν from χωρά̄ων of countries. In Aeolic οᾱ ῀ ᾱ in βᾱθόεντι (Ion. βωθόεντι) = Att. βοηθοῦντι aiding (dative).
4. Doric contracts αε to η; αη to η; αει, αῃ to ῃ. Thus, νί̄κη from νί̄καε conquer! ὁρῇ from ὁράει and ὁράῃ; but ᾱε ῀ ᾱ (ἅ̄λιος from ἀ̄έλιος, Hom. ἠέλιος sun).
5. The Severer (and earlier) Doric contracts εε to η, and οε, οο to ω. Thus, φιλήτω from φιλεέτω, δηλῶτε from δηλόετε, ἵππω from ἵππο-ο (230 D.); the Milder (and later) Doric and N. W. Greek contract to ει, and ου. Aeolic agrees with the Severer Doric.
SYNIZESIS
60
In poetry two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, belonging to successive syllables may unite to form a single syllable in pronunciation, but not in writing. Thus, βέλεα missiles, πόλεως city, Πηληϊάδεω son of Peleus, χρῡσέῳ golden. This is called Synizēsis (συνίζησις settling together).
61
Synizesis may occur between two words when the first ends in a long vowel or diphthong. This is especially the case with δή now, ἤ or, ἦ (interrog.), μή not, ἐπεί since, ἐγώ I, ὦ oh; as ἦ ου᾽ O 18.
a. The term synizesis is often restricted to cases where the first vowel is long. Where the first vowel is short, ε, ι were sounded nearly like y; υ nearly like ω. Cp. 44 a. The single syllable produced by synizesis is almost always long.
CRASIS
62
Crasis (κρᾶσις mingling) is the contraction of a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word with a vowel or diphthong beginning the following word. Over the syllable resulting from contraction is placed a ' called corōnis (κορωνίς hook), as τἄ̄λλα from τὰ ἄλλα the other things, the rest.
a. The coronis is not written when the rough breathing stands on the first word: ὁ ἄνθρωπος ῀ ἅ̄νθρωπος.
b. Crasis does not occur when the first vowel may be elided. (Some editors write τἄλλα, etc.)
63
Crasis occurs in general only between words that belong together; and the first of the two words united by crasis is usually the less important; as the article, relative pronoun (ὅ, ἅ), πρό, καί, δή, ὦ. Crasis occurs chiefly in poetry.
a. It is rare in Hom., common in the dialogue parts of the drama (especially in comedy), and frequent in the orators.
64
π, τ, κ become φ, θ, χ when the next word begins with the rough breathing (124): τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ῀ θἠμέρᾳ the day, καὶ οἱ and the = χοι᾽ (68 c).
65
Iota subscript (5) appears in the syllable resulting from crasis only when the first syllable of the second word contains an ι: ἐγὼ οἶδα ῀ ἐγᾦδα I know (but τῷ ὀργάνῳ ῀ τὠργάνῳ the instrument, 68 a).
66
The rules for crasis are in general the same as those for contraction (48 ff.). Thus, τὸ ὄνομα ῀ τοὔνομα the name, ὁ ἐν ῀ οὑν, ὦ ἄνερ ῀ ὦνερ oh man, πρὸ ἔχων ῀ προὔχων excelling, τὸ ἱ̄μάτιον ῀ θοἰμάτιον the cloak (64), ἃ ἐγώ ῀ ἁ̄γώ.
67
A diphthong may lose its final vowel: οἱ ἐμοί ῀ οὑμοί, σοι ἐστί ῀ σοὐστί, μου ἐστί ῀ μοὐστί. Cp. 43, 68.
68
The final vowel or diphthong of the article, and of τοί, is dropped, and an initial α of the next word is lengthened unless it is the first vowel of a diphthong. The same rule applies in part to καί.
a. Article.—ὁ ἀνήρ ῀ ἁ̄νήρ, οἱ ἄνδρες ῀ ἅ̄νδρες, αἱ ἀγαθαί ῀ ἁ̄γαθαί, ἡ ἀγήθεια ῀ ἁ̄λήθεια, τοῦ ἀνδρός ῀ τἀ̄νδρός, τῷ ἀνδρί ῀ τἀ̄νδρί, ὁ αὐτός ῀ αὑτός the same, τοῦ αὐτοῦ ῀ ταὐτοῦ of the same.
b. τοί.—τοὶ ἄρα ῀ τἄ̄ρα, μέντοι ἄν ῀ μεντἄ̄ν.
c. καί.—(1) αι is dropped: καὶ αὐτός ῀ καὐτός, καὶ οὐ ῀ κου᾽, καὶ ἡ ῀ χη᾽, καὶ οἱ ῀ χοι᾽, καὶ ἱκετεύετε ῀ χἰ̄κετεύετε and ye beseech (64). (2) αι is contracted chiefly before ε and ει: καὶ ἐν ῀ κἀ̄ν, καὶ ἐγώ ῀ κἀ̄γώ, καὶ ἐς ῀ κἀ̄ς, καὶ εἶτα ῀ κᾆτα (note however καὶ εἰ ῀ κει᾽, καὶ εἰς ῀ κεἰς); also before ο in καὶ ὅτε ῀ χὤτε. καὶ ὅπως ῀ χὤπως (64).
N.—The exceptions in 68 a-c to the laws of contraction are due to the desire to let the vowel of the more important word prevail: ἅ̄νηρ, not ὡνηρ, because of ἀνήρ.
68 D
Hom. has ὤριστος ῀ ὁ ἄριστος, ωὐτός ῀ ὁ αὐτός. Hdt. has οὕτερος ῀ ὁ ἕτερος, ὡνήρ ῀ ὁ ἀνήρ, ὡυτοί ῀ οἱ αὐτοί, τὠυτό ῀ τὸ αὐτό, τὠυτοῦ ῀ τοῦ αὐτοῦ, ἑωυτοῦ ῀ ἕο αὐτοῦ, ὧνδρες ῀ οἱ ἄνδρες. Doric has κἠπί ῀ καὶ ἐπί.
69
Most crasis forms of ἕτερος other are derived from ἅτερος, the earlier form: thus, ὁ ἕτερος ῀ ἅ̄τερος, οἱ ἕτεροι ῀ ἅ̄τεροι; but τοῦ ἑτέρου ῀ θοὐτέρου (64).
ELISION
70
Elision is the expulsion of a short vowel at the end of a word before a word beginning with a vowel. An apostrophe (') marks the place where the vowel is elided.
ἀλλ᾽ (ὰ) ἄγε, ἔδωκ᾽ (α) ἐννέα, ἐφ᾽ (= ἐπὶ) ἑαυτοῦ (64), ἔχοιμ᾽ (ι) ἄν, γένοιτ᾽ (ο) ἄν.
a. Elision is often not expressed to the eye except in poetry. Both inscriptions and the Mss. of prose writers are very inconsistent, but even where the elision is not expressed, it seems to have occurred in speaking; i.e. ὅδε εἶπε and ὅδ᾽ εἶπε were spoken alike. The Mss. are of little value in such cases.
71
Elision affects only unimportant words or syllables, such as particles, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions of two syllables (except περί, ἄχρι, μέχρι, ὅτι 72 b, c), and the final syllables of nouns, pronouns, and verbs.
a. The final vowel of an emphatic personal pronoun is rarely elided.
72
Elision does not occur in
a. Monosyllables, except such as end in ε (τέ, δέ, γέ).
b. The conjunction ὅτι that? (ὅτ᾽ is ὅτε when).
c. The prepositions πρό before, ἄχρι, μέχρι until, and περί concerning (except before ι).
d. The dative singular ending ι of the third declension, and in σι, the ending of the dative plural.
e. Words with final υ.
72 D
Absence of elision in Homer often proves the loss of ϝ (3), as in κατὰ ἄστυ X 1. Epic admits elision in σά thy, ῥά, in the dat. sing. of the third decl., in -σι and -αι in the personal endings, and in -ναι, -σθαι of the infinitive, and (rarely) in μοί, σοί, τοί. ἄνα oh king, and ἄνα ῀ ἀνάστηθι rise up, elide only once, ἰδέ and never. Hdt. elides less often than Attic prose; but the Mss. are not a sure guide. περί sometimes appears as πέρ in Doric and Aeolic before words beginning with other vowels than ι. ὀξεἶ ὀδύναι Λ 272. Cp. 148 D. 1.
73
Except ἐστί is, forms admitting movable ν (134 a) do not suffer elision in prose. (But some cases of ε in the perfect occur in Demosthenes.)
73 D
In poetry a vowel capable of taking movable ν is often cut off.
74
αι in the personal endings and the infinitive is elided in Aristophanes; scarcely ever, if at all, in tragedy; its elision in prose is doubtful. οι is elided in tragedy in οἴμοι alas.
75
Interior elision takes place in forming compound words. Here the apostrophe is not used. Thus, οὐδείς no one from οὐδὲ εἷς, καθοράω look down upon from κατὰ ὁράω, μεθί̄ημι let go from μετὰ ἵ̄ημι (124).
a. ὁδί̄, τουτί̄ this are derived from the demonstrative pronouns ὅδε, τοῦτο + the deictic ending ῑ (333 g).
b. Interior elision does not always occur in the formation of compounds. Thus, σκηπτοῦχος sceptre-bearing from σκηπτο ¨ οχος (i.e. σοχος). Cp. 878.
c. On the accent in elision, see 174.
75 D
Apocope (ἀποκοπή cutting off) occurs when a final short vowel is cut off before an initial consonant. In literature apocope is confined to poetry, but in the prose inscriptions of the dialects it is frequent. Thus, in Hom., as separate words and in compounds, ἄν, κάτ, πάρ (ἀπ, ὑπ rarely) for ἀνά, κατά, παρά (ἀπό, ὑπό). Final τ is assimilated to a following consonant (but κατθανεῖν to die, not καθθανεῖν, cp. 83 a); so final ν by 91-95. Thus, ἀλλέξαι to pick up, ἂμ πόνον into the strife; κάββαλε threw down, κάλλιπε left behind, κακκείοντες lit. lying down, καυάξαις break in pieces, for καϝϝάξαις ῀ κατ-ϝάξαις, κὰδ δέ, καδδῦσαι entering into, κὰπ πεδίον through the plain, κὰγ γόνυ on the knee (kag not kang), κὰρ ῥόον in the stream; ὑββάλλειν interrupt, ἀππέμψει will send away. When three consonants collide, the final consonant of the apocopate word is usually lost, as κάκτανε slew, from κάκκτανε out of κατ(έ)κτανε. Apocope occurs rarely in Attic poetry. πότ for ποτί (= πρός in meaning) is frequent in Doric and Boeotian.
N.—The shorter forms may have originated from elision.
APHAERESIS (INVERSE ELISION)
76
Aphaeresis (ἀφᾳίρεσις taking away) is the elision of ε at the beginning of a word after a word ending in a long vowel or diphthong. This occurs only in poetry, and chiefly after μή not, ἤ or. Thus, μὴ ᾿ νταῦθα, ἢ ᾿ μέ, παρέξω ᾿ μαυτόν, αὐτὴ ᾿ ξῆλθεν. In some texts editors prefer to adopt crasis (62) or synizesis (60). α is rarely elided thus.
Herbert Weir Smyth.
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