THE ARTICLE—ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

1100

In Homer ὁ, ἡ, τό is usually a demonstrative pronoun and is used substantively or adjectively; it also serves as the personal pronoun of the third person:

, τὸν λωβητῆρα ἐπεσβόλον this prating brawler B 275, τὴν δ᾽ ἐγὼ οὐ λύ̄σω but her I will not release A 29.

1101

In its substantival use ὁ either marks a contrast or recalls the subject (the anaphoric use). But with ἀλλά, δέ, αὐτάρ the subject is generally changed. It often precedes an explanatory relative clause: τῶν οἳ νῦν βροτοί εἰσι of those who are now mortal men A 272.

1102

ὁ, ἡ, τό often approaches to its later use as the definite article or is actually so used: τὸν μέν . . . τὸν δ᾽ ἕτερον E 145 (cp. 1107). a. The substantive often stands in apposition, and is added, as an afterthought, to the demonstrative (especially ὁ δέ) which is still an independent pronoun:

. In some cases the appositive is needed to complete the sense: . b. Often with adjectives and participles used substantively, with pronouns, and adverbs; especially when a contrast or distinction is implied: , τὰ ἐσσόμενα the things that are to be A 70, τὸ πάρος formerly N 228. The attributive adj. before the noun: , ; and in apposition: Ἶρον τὸν ἀλήτην Irus, the beggar ς 333. Hom. has πατὴρ οὑμός Θ 360 (but does not use ὁ πατὴρ ὁ ἐμός).

1103

In Hom. ὁ contrasts two objects, indicates a change of person, or a change of action on the part of the same person. Attic ὁ defines.

1104

The transition from the demonstrative to the article is so gradual that it is often impossible to distinguish between the two. Ordinarily Homer does not use the article where it is required in Attic prose. The Epic use is adopted in general by the lyric poets and in the lyric parts of tragedy. Even in tragic dialogue the article is less common than in prose. Hdt. has ὁ δέ and he, ὁ γάρ for he.

1105

The demonstrative ὁ, ἡ, τό is used as a relative pronoun in Homer only when the antecedent is definite (cp. that): τεύχεα δ᾽ ἐξενάριξε, τά οἱ πόρε χάλκεος Ἄρης he stripped off the arms that brazen Ares had given him H 146. The tragic poets use only the forms in τ-, and chiefly to avoid hiatus or to produce position:

. (ὅ ῀ ὅς E. Hipp. 525.) On the use in Herodotus, see 338 D. 3.

1106

The demonstrative force of ὁ, ἡ, τό survives chiefly in connection with particles (μέν, δέ, γέ, τοί; and with καί preceding ὁ).

1107

ὁ is a demonstrative commonly before μέν, δέ, and especially in contrasted expressions: ὁ μέν . . . ὁ δέ the one, this . . . the other, that, as in

.

1108

The reference may be indefinite; in which case τὶς is often added:

, οἱ μέν τινες ἀπέθνῃσκον, οἱ δ᾽ ἔφευγον some were killed, but others escaped C. 3. 2. 10.

1109

With prepositions the order is usually inverted: ἐκ μὲν τῶν, εἰς δὲ τά (1663 a).

1110

In late writers (but in Demosthenes) the relative is used as in 1107: πόλεις, ᾱ<*>ς μὲν ἀναιρῶν, εἰς ᾱ<*>ς δὲ τοὺς φυγάδας κατάγων destroying some cities, into others bringing back their exiles D. 18.71 (the first instance).

1111

Note the adverbial expressions: τὸ (τὰ) μέν . . . τὸ (τὰ) δέ on the one hand . . . on the other hand, partly . . . partly (so also τοῦτο μέν . . . τοῦτο δέ 1256); τὸ δέ τι partly, τῇ μέν . . . τῇ δέ in this way . . . in that way, τὸ δέ whereas (1112), τῷ τοι therefore.

1112

ὁ δέ, ἡ δέ, τὸ δέ (without a preceding μέν clause) often mean but (or and) he, she, this. In the nominative the person referred to is usually different from the subject of the main verb: Κῦρος δίδωσιν αὐτῷ μῡρίους δᾱρεικούς· ὁ δὲ λαβὼν τὸ χρῡσίον κ.τ.λ. Cyrus gives him (Clearchus) 10,000 darics; and he taking the money, etc. X. A. 1.1.9, ταῦτα ἀπαγγέλλουσι τοῖς στρατιώταις· τοῖς δὲ ὑποψίᾱ ἦν ὅτι ἄγοι πρὸς βασιλέᾱ they report this to the soldiers; and they had a suspicion that he was leading (them) against the king X. A. 1.3.21,

.

1113

As a personal pronoun, chiefly after καί, and in the nominative: καὶ ὅς (ἥ) and he (she):

. Also in (792). So καὶ τόν (τήν) used as the accusative of καὶ ὅς, as subject of a following infinitive in indirect discourse: καὶ τὸν εἰπεῖν and (he said that) he said P. S. 174a.

1114

In the nominative ὅς, ἥ, are usually thus written. Some write ὅ, ἥ, οἵ, αἵ when these words are used as demonstratives; but ὃ μέν . . . ὃ δέ is rare.

a. The forms ὅς, ἥ, here apparently relatives with an older demonstrative force, may be in reality demonstratives, ὅς being the demonstrative (article) ὁ to which the nominative sign -ς has been added. From this ὅς may be derived, by analogy, the demonstrative use of ὅ, and of οἶς, οὕς in fixed expressions (1110).

1115

Also in

, , τὰ καὶ τά D. 21.141, . In the nom. .

1116

In an oblique case before the relatives ὅς, ὅσος, οἶος:

, , and often in Plato in defining philosophical terms.

1117

Rarely with prepositions, except in πρὸ τοῦ (or προτοῦ) before this time T. 1.118. On ἐν τοῖς with the superlative, see 1089.

1118

The article ὁ, ἣ, τό marks objects as definite and known, whether individuals (the particular article) or classes (the generic article). The context must determine the presence of the generic article.

a. There is no indefinite article in Greek, but a, an is often represented by τὶς (1267).

1119

The particular article denotes individual persons or things as distinguished from others of the same kind. Thus, μαίνεται ἅ̄νθρωπος the man is mad (a definite person, distinguished from other men) P. Phae. 268c.

1120

Special uses of the particular article. The particular article defines

a. Objects well known: ὁ τῶν ἑπτὰ σοφώτατος Σόλων Solon the wisest of the Seven (Sages) P. Tim. 20d.

b Objects already mentioned or in the mind of the speaker or writer (the anaphoric article): εἶπον ὅτι τάλαντον ἀργυρίου ἕτοιμος εἴην δοῦναι . . . ὁ δὲ λαβὼν τὸ τάλαντον κ.τ.λ. I said that I was ready to give him a talent of silver . . . and he taking the talent, etc. L. 12.9-10.

c. Objects specially present to the senses or mind (the deictic article):

, . Hence the article is regularly used with demonstrative pronouns (1176).

N.—The foregoing (a - c) uses recall the old demonstrative force of the article. Words that ordinarily have no article may receive the article when this older force is present.

d. Objects particularized by an attributive or by a following description:

, . Cp. 1178 d.

e. Objects marked as usual or proper under the circumstances: τὸ μέρος τῶν ψήφων ὁ διώκων οὐκ ἔλαβεν the prosecutor did not get the (requisite) part of the votes D. 18.103.

f. Objects representative of their class (the distributive article, which resembles the generic use; often translated by a, each):

. But the article may be omitted: καὶ εἵλοντο δέκα, ἕνα ἀπὸ φῡλῆς and they chose ten, one from (each) tribe X. H. 2.4.23.

1121

The article often takes the place of an unemphatic possessive pronoun when there is no doubt as to the possessor.

.

1122

The generic article denotes an entire class as distinguished from other classes. Thus, ὁ ἄνθρωπος man (as distinguished from other beings), οἱ γέροντες the aged; δεῖ τὸν στρατιώτην φοβεῖσθαι μᾶλλον τὸν ἄρχοντα ἢ τοὺς πολεμίους the (a) soldier should fear his commander rather than the enemy X. A. 2.6.10,

.

1123

In the singular the generic article makes a single object the representative of the entire class; in the plural it denotes all the objects belonging to a class. The generic article is especially common, in the plural, with adjectives used substantively:

.

1124

The Article with Participles.—A participle with the article may denote an entire class: ὁ βουλόμενος any one who wishes. Cp. 2050, 2052.

ὁ τυχών any chance comer, ὁ ἡγησόμενος a guide,

, οἱ λογοποιοῦντες newsmongers 4. 49. The same sense is expressed by πᾶς ὁ with a participle or adjective. On the article with a participle in the predicate, see 1152.

a. When the reference is to a particular occasion, the article may be particular (2052); as ὁ λέγων the speaker on a definite occasion.

1125

The article may be used with cardinal numerals

a. When the numeral states the definite part of a whole (expressed or understood): ἀπῆσαν τῶν λόχων δώδεκα ὄντων οἱ τρεῖς of the companies, numbering twelve (in all), there were absent three X. H. 7.5.10, εἷς παρὰ τοὺς δέκα one man in (comparison with) ten X. O. 20.16,

, δύο μέρη two thirds 3. 15. (The genitive is omitted when the denominator exceeds the numerator by one.)

b. When the numeral is approximate:

, .

c. When the number is used abstractly (without reference to any definite object):

.

N. Ordinals usually omit the article and regularly do so in statements of time in the dative (1540):

.

1126

The article is often omitted (1) in words and phrases which have survived from the period when ὁ, ἡ, τό was a demonstrative pronoun; (2) when a word is sufficiently definite by itself; (3) when a word expresses a general conception without regard to its application to a definite person. The generic article is frequently omitted, especially with abstracts (1132), without appreciable difference in meaning. Its presence or absence is often determined by the need of distinguishing subject from predicate (1150), by the rhythm of the sentence, etc.

1127

The article is omitted in many adverbial designations of time, mostly with prepositions (except ἡμέρᾱς by day, νυκτός by night).

Thus, περὶ μέσᾱς νύκτας about midnight, ἅμα ἕῳ just before daylight, ὥρᾳ ἕτους at the season of the year. So with ὄρθρος daybreak, δείλη afternoon, ἑσπέρᾱ evening, ἔαρ spring; and ἐκ παίδων from childhood. Most of the above cases are survivals of the older period when the article had a demonstrative force.

1128

The article is very often omitted in phrases containing a preposition:

, , .

1129

Words denoting persons, when they are used of a class, may omit the article. So ἄνθρωπος, στρατηγός, θεός divinity, god (ὁ θεός the particular god). Thus,

.

1130

Adjectives and participles used substantively have no article when the reference is general:

, ψῡχρόν cold, , πέμψαι προκαταληψομένους τὰ ἄκρα to send men to preoccupy the heights X. A. 1.3.14. Rarely when an adverb is used adjectively: .

1131

Abstract substantives generally have the article:

.

1132

The names of the virtues, vices, arts, sciences, occupations often omit the article: τί σωφροσύνη, τί μανίᾱ; what is temperance, what is madness? X. M. 1.1.16, ἀρχὴ φιλίᾱς μὲν ἔπαινος, ἔχθρᾱς δὲ ψόγος praise is the beginning of friendship, blame of enmity I. 1.33. Similarly μουσική music, γεωργίᾱ agriculture. So also with δόξα opinion, νοῦς mind, τέχνη art, νόμος law.

1133

The article must be used when reference is made to a definite person or thing or to an object well known:

, (ὑ̄μῖν) .

1134

The article may be omitted in designations of space; as βάθος depth, ὕψος height; also μέγεθος size, πλῆθος size, amount. γένος and ὄνομα, used as accusatives of respect (1600), may omit the article.

1135

The article may be omitted with some concrete words conveying a general idea, as ψῡχή soul, σῶμα body (but the parts of the body regularly have the article).

1136

Names of persons and places are individual and therefore omit the article unless previously mentioned (1120 b) or specially marked as well known:

, τοὺς στρατιώτᾱς αὐτῶν, τοὺς παρὰ Κλέαρχον ἀπελθόντας, εἴᾱ Κῦρος τὸν Κλέαρχον ἔχειν their soldiers who seceded to Clearchus, Cyrus allowed Clearchus to retain X. A. 1.4.7, ὁ Σόλων D. 20.90, οἱ Ἡρᾱ<*>λέες the Heracleses P. Th. 169b.

1137

Names of deities omit the article, except when emphatic (νὴ τὸν Δία by Zeus) or when definite cults are referred to: τὸ τῆς Ἀθηνᾶς ἕδος the sanctuary of Athena (at Athens) I. 15.2. Names of festivals vary in prose writers (no article in inscriptions): Παναθήναια the Panathenaea (but

). Names of shrines have the article.

1138

Names of nations may omit the article, but οἱ Ἕλληνες is usual when opposed to οἱ βάρβαροι the barbarians. When nations are opposed, the article is usually absent: ὁ πόλεμος Ἀθηναίων καὶ Πελοποννησίων T. 2.1 (but ὁ πόλεμος τῶν Πελοποννησίων καὶ Ἀθηναίων 1. 1). The name of a nation without the article denotes the entire people. Names of families may omit the article: Ἀσκληπιάδαι P. R. 406a.

1139

Continents: ἡ Εὐρώπη Europe, ἡ Ἀσίᾱ Asia. Other names of countries, except those originally adjectives (as ἡ Ἀττική Attica), omit the article (Λιβύη Libya). γῆ and χώρᾱ may be added only to such names as are treated as adjectives: ἡ Βοιωτίᾱ (γῆ) Boeotia. The names of countries standing in the genitive of the divided whole (1311) usually omit the article only when the genitive precedes the governing noun:

. The article is generally used with names of mountains and rivers; but is often omitted with names of islands, seas (but ὁ Πόντος the Pontus), and winds. Names of cities usually omit the article. Names of cities, rivers, and mountains often add πόλις, ποταμός, ὄρος (1142 c). The article is omitted with proper names joined with αὐτός used predicatively (1206 b): .

1140

Several appellatives, treated like proper names, may omit the article: βασιλεύς the king of Persia (ὁ βασιλεύς is anaphoric (1120 b) or refers expressly to a definite person). Titles of official persons: πρυτάνεις the Prytans, στρατηγοί the Generals. Names of relationship, etc.: πατήρ father, ἀνήρ husband, γυνή wife (but the article is needed when a definite individual is spoken of). Thus:

. So also πατρίς fatherland.

1141

Similarly in the case of words forming a class by themselves, and some others used definitely: ἥλιος sun, οὐρανός heaven, ὧραι seasons, κεραυνός thunder, θάνατος death; ἄστυ, πόλις city, ἀκρόπολις citadel, ἀγορά̄ market-place, τεῖχος city-wall, πρυτανεῖον prytaneum, νῆσος island (all used of definite places), θάλαττα sea as opposed to the mainland, but ἡ θάλαττα of a definite sea; similarly γῆ earth, land.

1142

When the name of a person or place is defined by an appositive (916) or attributive, the following distinctions are to be noted:

a. Persons: Περδίκκᾱς Ἀλεξάνδρου Perdiccas, son of Alexander T. 2.99: the official designation merely stating the parentage. Δημοσθένης ὁ Ἀλκισθένους (the popular designation) distinguishes Demosthenes, the son of Alcisthenes (T. 3.91) from other persons named Demosthenes. (Similarly with names of nations.)

b. Deities: the article is used with the name and with the epithet or (less often) with neither:

, Διὶ ἐλευθερίῳ to Zeus guardian of freedom 2. 71.

c. Geographical Names are usually treated as attributives, as

ὁ Εὐφρά̄της ποταμός

the river Euphrates

(X. A. 1.4.11)

,

ἡ Βόλβη λίμνη

lake Bolbe

(T. 4.103)

. In a very few cases (six times in Thuc.) ὁ is omitted with the name of a river when ποταμός is inserted; but Hdt. often omits ὁ. With the names of mountains the order is

τὸ Πήλιον ὄρος

Mt. Pelion

(Hdt. 7.129)

when the gender agrees, but otherwise

ἐς τὸ ὄρος τὴν Ἰστώνην

to Mt. Istone

(T. 3.85)

(rarely as

ὑπὸ τῇ Αἴτνῃ τῷ ὄρει

at the foot of Mt. Aetna

(T. 3.116)

). With names of islands, towns, etc., the order varies:

τὸ Παρθένιον πόλισμα

the town of Parthenium

(X. A. 7.8.21)

;

ἡ Ψυττάλεια νῆσος

the island of Psyttalea

(Hdt. 8.95)

;

Τραγίᾱ ἡ νῆσος

the island of Tragia

(T. 1.116)

;

τοῦ Πειραιῶς τοῦ λιμένος

of the harbour of Peiraeus

(T. 2.93)

; τὸ φρούριον τὸ Λάβδαλον fort Labdalon 7. 3. The city of Mende would be Μένδη πόλις, ἡ Μένδη ἡ πόλις, Μένδη ἡ πόλις.

1143

A single article, used with the first of two or more nouns connected by and, produces the effect of a single notion: οἱ στρατηγοὶ καὶ λοχᾱγοί the generals and captains (the commanding officers) X. A. 2.2.8, τὰ̄ς μεγίστᾱς καὶ ἐλαχίστᾱς ναῦς the largest and the smallest ships (the whole fleet) T. 1.10,

. Rarely when the substantives are of different genders: .

1144

A repeated article lays stress on each word:

(here the subject remains the same), .

1145

Instead of repeating a noun with the article it may suffice to repeat the article:

.

1146

A substantive followed by an attributive genitive and forming with it a compound idea, usually omits the article: τελευτὴ τοῦ βίου (the) end of his life (‘life-end’ as life-time) X. A. 1.1.1. (Less commonly ἡ τελευτὴ τοῦ βίου X. A. 1.9.30.) Cp. 1295 a.

1147

When the genitive dependent on a substantive is a proper name:

, and μετὰ τὴν Λέσβου ἅλωσιν after the capture of Lesbos 3. 51. A preceding genitive thus often takes the place of the article: .

1148

Concrete coördinated words forming a copulative expression may omit the article:

, , . Cp. man and wife, horse and rider.

1149

An appositive to the personal pronouns of the first and second persons has the article when the appositive would have it (as third person) with the pronoun omitted: ὑ̄μεῖς οἱ ἡγεμόνες πρὸς ἐμὲ πάντες συμβάλλετε do you, captains, all confer with me (οἱ ἡγεμόνες συμβάλλοι<*>) X. C. 6.2.41, οὐ σφόδρα χρώμεθα οἱ Κρῆτες τοῖς ξενικοῖς ποιήμασιν we Cretans do not make very much use of foreign poems P. L. 680c, χαίρω ἀκούων ὑ̄μῶν τῶν σοφῶν I delight in listening to you <*> P. Ion 532 d.

1150

A predicate noun has no article, and is thus distinguished from the subject: καλεῖται ἡ ἀκρόπολις ἔτι ὑπ᾽ Ἀθηναίων πόλις the acropolis is still called ‘city’ by the Athenians T. 2.15.

1151

Predicate comparatives and superlatives, possessive pronouns, and ordinals have no article: ᾤμην τὴν ἐμαυτοῦ γυναῖκα πᾱσῶν σωφρονεστάτην <*> I thought that my wife was (the) most virtuous of all L. 1.10, Χαιρεφῶν <*> ἑταῖρος ἦν Chaerephon was a friend of mine P. A. 21a. Cp. 1125 d.

1152

Even in the predicate the article is used with a noun referring to a definite object (an individual or a class) that is well known, previously mentioned or hinted at, or identical with the subject: οἱ δ᾽ ἄλλοι ἐπιχειροῦσι βάλλειν <*> Δέξιππον ἀνακαλοῦντες τὸν προδότην the rest try to strike Dexippus calling him ‘the traitor’ X. A. 6.6.7, οὗτοι ἦσαν οἱ φεύγοντες τὸν ἔλεγχον these men were those who (as I have said) avoided the inquiry Ant. 6.27. οἱ τιθέμενοι τοὺς νόμονς <*> ἀσθενεῖς ἄνθρωποί εἰσι καὶ οἱ πολλοί the enactors of the laws are the weak men and the multitude P. G. 483b,

(here subject and predicate could change places). So also with ὁ αὐτός the same (1209 a), θἄ̄τερον one of two (69), τοὐναντίον the opposite.

1153

The article has the power to make substantival any word or words to which it is prefixed.

a. Adjectives: ὁ σοφός the wise man, τὸ δίκαιον justice.

b. Participles (with indefinite force): ὁ βουλόμενος whoever wills, the first that offers. Cp. 1124.

N. 1.—Such participial nouns appear in active, middle, and passive forms, and admit the distinctions of tense:

.

N. 2.—Thucydides often substantivizes the neuter participle to form abstract expressions: τῆς πόλεως τὸ τῑμώμενον the dignity of the State 2. 63. Such participial nouns denote an action regulated by time and circumstance. Contrast τὸ δεδιός fear (in actual operation) 1. 36 with τὸ δέος (simply fear in the abstract).

c. Preposition and case:

, .

d. With the genitive, forming a noun-phrase (1299):

, .

e. Adverbs:

. Similarly οἱ τότε the men of that time, οἱ ἐκεῖ the dead, οἱ πάλαι the ancients.

N.—An adverb preceded by the article may be used like an adjective:

. The article is rarely omitted.

f. Infinitives:

καλοῦσί γε ἀκολασίᾱν τὸ ὑπὸ τῶν ἡδονῶν ἄρχεσθαι

they call intemperance being ruled by one's pleasures

(P. Ph. 68e)

.

g. Any single word or clause: τὸ ὑ̄μεῖς ὅταν λέγω, τὴν πόλιν λέγω when I say You, I mean the State D. 18.88, ὑπερβὰ̄ς τὸ δίκᾱς ὑπεχέτω τοῦ φόνου omitting (the words) ‘let him submit to judgment for the murder’ D. 23.220.