SYNTAX OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

2165

Two or more sentences (or words) independent in form and thought, but juxtaposed, i.e. coördinated without any connective, are asyndetic (from ἀσύνδετον not bound together), and such absence of connectives is called asyndeton.

a. The absence of connectives in a language so rich in means of coördination as is Greek is more striking than in other languages. Grammatical asyndeton cannot always be separated from rhetorical asyndeton. Grammatical asyndeton is the absence of a conjunction where a connective might have been used without marked influence on the character of the thought; as especially in explanatory sentences (often after a preparatory word, usually a demonstrative) which take up the matter just introduced; also where, in place of a conjunction, a resumptive word, such as οὗτος, τοιοῦτος, τοσοῦτος, ἐνταῦθα, οὕτω, etc., is employed. Rhetorical asyndeton is the absence of a conjunction where the following sentence contains a distinct advance in the thought and not a mere formal explanation appended to the foregoing sentence. Rhetorical asyndeton generally expresses emotion of some sort, and is the mark of liveliness, rapidity, passion, or impressiveness, of thought, each idea being set forth separately and distinctly. Thus, οὐκ ἀσεβής; οὐκ ὠμός; οὐκ ἀκάθαρτος; οὐ σῡκοφάντης; is he not impious? is he not brutal? is he not impure? is he not a pettifogger? D. 25.63.

2166

Asyndeton is frequent in rapid and lively descriptions.

, προσπεσόντες ἐμάχοντο, ἐώθουν ἐωθοῦντο, ἔπαιον ἐπαίοντο falling upon them, they fought; pushed (and) were pushed; struck (and) were struck X. C. 7.1.38. Also with anaphora (2167 c), as in . Cp. T. 7.71, D. 19.76, 19. 215, P. S. 197d.

2167

Asyndeton also appears when the unconnected sentence

a. Summarizes the main contents, or expresses the result, of the preceding. Thus,

, , φυλακῇ μέντοι πρὸ τῶν πυλῶν ἐντευξόμεθα· ἔστι γὰρ ἀεὶ τεταγμένη. οὐκ ἂν μέλλειν δέοι, ἔφη ὁ Κῦρος, ἀλλ᾽ ἰέναι however, we shall meet with a guard in front of the gates, for one is always stationed there. We must not delay, but advance, said Cyrus X. C. 7.5.25. This is often the case when a demonstrative takes up the foregoing thought (as ἔδοξε ταῦτα X. A. 1.3.20) or continues the narrative, as in ἀκούσᾱσι τοῖς στρατηγοῖς ταῦτα ἔδοξε τὸ στράτευμα συναγαγεῖν 4. 4. 19 (cp. 2061).

b. Expresses a reason or explains the preceding. Thus, μῑκρὸν δ᾽ ὕπνου λαχὼν εἶδεν ὄναρ· ἔδοξεν αὐτῷ . . . σκηπτὸς πεσεῖν κτλ. when he had snatched a little sleep, he saw a vision; a bolt of lightning seemed to him to fall, etc. X. A. 3.1.11,

. Here γάρ or ἄρα might have been used. So often after a preparatory word (often a demonstrative); as ταὐτὸν δή μοι δοκεῖ τοῦτ᾽ ἄρα καὶ περὶ τὴν ψῡχὴν εἶναι· ἔνδηλα πάντα ἐστὶν ἐν τῇ ψῡχῇ ἐπειδὰν γυμνωθῇ τοῦ σώματος κτλ. now it seems to me that this is the same with regard to the soul too; everything in the soul is open to view when a man is stripped of his body P. G. 524d. , and so when ὥσπερ is followed by οὕτω καί (P. R. 557c). Also when μέν γε . . . δέ take up what precedes, as ὅμοιός γε Σόλων νομοθέτης καί Τῑμοκράτης· ὁ μέν γε . . . ὁ δέ D. 24.106. Furthermore after τεκμήριον δέ (994), as T. 2.50.

c. Repeats a significant word or phrase of the earlier sentence (anaphora). Thus,

. In poetry a thought is often repeated in a different form by means of a juxtaposed sentence (S. Tr. 1082).

d. Sets forth a contrast in thought to the preceding. This is commoner in poetry than in prose. Thus,

.

e. Introduces a new thought or indicates a change to a new form of expression. Thus, ἀλλ᾽ ἰτέον, ἔφη. πρῶτόν με ὑπομνήσατε ἃ ἐλέγετε but we must proceed, said he. First recall to my mind what you were saying P. Ph. 91c.

f. Is introduced by a word stressed by emotion, as ταῦτα D. 3.32, ἐγώ 4. 29.

On juxtaposition of participles, see 2147.

2168

The term parataxis (παράταξις arranging side by side), as here employed, is restricted to the arrangement of two independent sentences side by side, though one is in thought subordinate to the other.

a. In Greek, παράταξις means simply coördination in general, as ὑπόταξις means subordination.

2169

In many cases parataxis is a common form of expression not only in the earlier language of Homer, but also in Attic prose and poetry.

So frequently in Attic prose with καί, τὲ . . . καί, ἅμα . . . καί, εὐθὺς . . . καί, and with δέ meaning for. Thus, ἤδη δὲ ἦν ὀψὲ . . . καὶ οἱ Κορίνθιοι πρύμναν ἐκρούοντο it was already late and (for when) the Corinthians started to row astern T. 1.50, καὶ ἤδη τε ἦν περὶ πλήθουσαν ἀγορὰ̄ν καὶ ἔρχονται . . . κήρῡκες and it was already about the time when the market-place fills and ( = when) heralds arrived X. A. 2.1.7,

, ἐπίστασθε μόνοι τῶν Ἑλλήνων τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς ἄνδρας τῑμᾶν· εὑρήσετε δὲ . . . παρ᾽ ὑ̄μῖν στρατηγοὺς ἀγαθοὺς (ἀνακειμένους) you alone among the Greeks know how to honour men of merit; for you will find statues of brave generals set up among you Lyc. 51. Cp. σκέψασθε δέ T. 1.143.

a. Temporal conjunctions, as ἡνίκα, are rarely used to introduce such clauses, which often indicate a sudden or decisive occurrence or simultaneous action.

b. Thucydides is especially fond of καί or τέ to coördinate two ideas, one of which is subordinate to the other.

2170

Parataxis often occurs when a thought naturally subordinate is made independent for the sake of emphasis or liveliness. Such rhetorical parataxis occurs chiefly in the orators and in Pindar. So especially when μέν and δέ are used to coördinate two contrasted clauses, the former of which is logically subordinate and inserted to heighten the force of the latter. Here English uses whereas, while. Thus,

.

2171

There exist many traces in Greek of the use of the older coördination in place of which some form of subordination was adopted, either entirely or in part, in the later language.

a. Thus several relative pronouns and adverbs were originally demonstrative, and as such pointed either to the earlier or the later clause. So ὁ, ἡ, τό (1105, cp. 1114): τεύχεα δ᾽ ἐξενάριζε, τά οἱ πόρε χάλκεος αρης (H 146) meant originally he stripped him of his arms; these brazen Ares had given him. τέως so long is properly demonstrative, but has acquired a relative function in

.

2172

Homer often places two thoughts in juxtaposition without any regard for logical connection. This is especially common with δέ, τέ, καί, αὐτάρ, ἀλλά. Thus, πολὺς δ᾽ ὀρυμαγδὸς ἐπ᾽ αὐτῷ ἀνδρῶν ἠδὲ κυνῶν, ἀπό τέ σφισιν (for οἶς)

.

a. So also in clauses preceded by a relative word; as εἷος ὁ ταῦθ᾽ ὥρμαινε . . ., ἐκ δ᾽ Ἑλένη θαλάμοιο . . . ἤλυθεν while he was pondering on this, (but) Helen came forth from her chamber δ 120, ὅς κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται, μάλα τ᾽ ἔκλυον αὐτοῦ whoever obeys the gods, (and) him they hear Α 218.

b. This use appears even in Attic prose; as οἰκου̂ͅσι δ᾽ ἐν μιᾷ τῶν νήσων οὐ μεγάλῃ, καλεῖται δὲ (for ἣ καλεῖται) Λιπάρᾱ they dwell in one of the islands that is not large, and it (which) is called Lipara T. 3.88. Cp. also 2837.