The Letters

23

The pronunciation of Ancient Greek varied much according to time and place, and differed in many important respects from that of the modern language. While in general Greek of the classical period was a phonetic language, i.e. its letters represented the sounds, and no heard sound was unexpressed in writing (but see 108), in course of time many words were retained in their old form though their pronunciation had changed. The tendency of the language was thus to become more and more unphonetic. Our current pronunciation of Ancient Greek is only in part even approximately correct for the period from the death of Pericles (429 B.C.) to that of Demosthenes (322); and in the case of several sounds, e.g. ζ, φ, χ, θ, it is certainly erroneous for that period. But ignorance of the exact pronunciation, as well as long-established usage, must render any reform pedantical, if not impossible. In addition to, and in further qualification of, the list of sound equivalents in 1 we may note the following:

24

Vowels.—Short α, ι, υ differed in sound from the corresponding long voweis only in being less prolonged; ε and ο probably differed from η and ω also in being less open, a difference that is impossible to parallel in English as our short vowels are more open than the long vowels. ᾰ : as a in Germ. hat. There is no true ă in accented syllables in English; the a of idea, aha is a neutral vowel. ε : as é in bonté; somewhat similar is a in bakery. η : as ê in fête, or nearly as e in where. ῐ : nearly as the first e in meteor, eternal. ο : as o in Fr. mot, somewhat like unaccented ŏ in obey or phonetic (as often sounded). ω : as o in Fr. encore. Eng. ō is prevailingly diphthongal (o^{u}). υ was originally sounded as u in prune, but by the fifth century had become like that of Fr. tu, Germ. thür. It never had in Attic the sound of u in mute. After υ had become like Germ. ü, the only means to represent the sound of the old υ (oo in moon) was ου (25). Observe, however, that, in diphthongs, final υ retained the old υ sound.

24 D

In Lesbos, Boeotia, Laconia, possibly in Ionia, and in some other places, υ was still sounded οο after it became like Germ. ü in Attic.

25

Diphthongs.—The diphthongs were sounded nearly as follows:

In ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ the long open vowels had completely overpowered the ι by 100 B.C., so that ι ceased to be written (5 a). The ι is now generally neglected in pronunciation though it may have still been sounded to some extent in the fourth century B.C.—The genuine diphthongs ει and ου (6) were originally distinct double sounds (ĕh’-i, ŏh’-oo), and as such were written ΕΙ, ΟΥ in the Old Attic alphabet (2 a): ΕΓΕΙΔΕ ἐπειδή, ΤΟΥΤΟΝ τούτων. The spurious diphthongs ει and ου (6) are digraphs representing the long sounds of simple ε (French é) and original υ. By 400 B.C. genuine ει and ου had become simple single sounds pronounced as ei in vein and ou in ourang; and spurious ει and ου, which had been written E and O (2 a), were now often written ΕΙ and ΟΥ. After 300 B.C. ει gradually acquired the sound of ei in seize. ευ was sounded like eh’-oo, ηυ and ωυ like ēh’-oo, ōh’-oo, pronounced rapidly but smoothly. υι is now commonly sounded as ui in quit. It occurred only before vowels, and the loss of the ι in ὑός son (43) shows that the diphthongal sound was disliked.

26

Consonants.—Most of the consonants were sounded as in English (1). Before ι, κ, γ, τ, ς never had a sh (or zh) sound heard in Lycia (Λυκίᾱ), Asia (Ἀσίᾱ). ς was usually like our sharp s; but before voiced consonants (15 a) it probably was soft, like z; thus we find both κόζμος and κόσμος on inscriptions. — ζ was probably = zd, whether it arose from an original σδ (as in Ἀθήναζε, from Ἀθηνα(ν)σ-δε Athens-wards), or from dz, developed from dy (as in ζυγόν, from (d)yυγόν, cp. jugum). The z in zd gradually extinguished the d, until in the Hellenistic period (p. 4) ζ sank to z (as in zeal), which is the sound in Modern Greek.—The aspirates φ, θ, χ were voiceless stops (15 b, 16 a) followed by a strong expiration: π^{h}, τ^{h}, κ^{h} as in upheaval, hothouse, backhand (though here h is in a different syllable from the stop). Thus, φεύγω was π̔εύγω, θέλω was τ̔έλω, ἔχω was ἔ-κ̔ω. Cp. ἐφ᾽ ᾧ for ἐπ(ὶ) ῾ῷ, etc. Probably only one h was heard when two aspirates came together, as in ἐχθρός (ἐκτ̔ρός). After 300 A.D. (probably) φ, θ, and χ became spirants, φ being sounded as f (as in Φίλιππος Philip), θ as th in theatre, χ as ch in German ich or loch. The stage between aspirates and spirants is sometimes represented by the writing πφ (= pf), τθ, κχ, which are affricata.—The neglect of the h in Latin representations of φ, θ, χ possibly shows that these sounds consisted of a stop + h. Thus, Pilipus = Φίλιππος, tus = θύος, Aciles = Ἀχιλλεύς. Modern Greek has the spirantic sounds, and these, though at variance with classical pronunciation, are now usually adopted. See also 108.

26 D

Aeolic has σδ for ζ in ὔσδος (ὄζος branch). In late Laconian θ passed into ς (σηρίον ῀ θηρίον wild beast). In Laconian and some other dialects β became a spirant and was written for ϝ. δ became a spirant in Attic after Christ.

27

Quantitative Vowel Gradation.—In the formation and inflection of words a short vowel often interchanges with its corresponding long vowel. Thus

28

Difference in quantity between Attic and Epic words is due chiefly either to (1) metrical lengthening, or to (2) different phonetic treatment, as καλϝός, τινϝω become Epic κᾱλός fair, τί̄νω I pay (37 D. 1), Attic κᾰλός, τί̆νω.

28 D

Metrical lengthening.—Many words, which would otherwise not fit into the verse, show in the Epic ει for ε, ου (rarely οι) for ο, and ᾱ, ῑ, ῡ for α, ι, υ. Thus, εἰνάλιος in the sea for ἐνάλιος, εἰαρινός vernal for ἐαρινός, ὑπείροχος eminent for ὑπέροχος, εἰλήλουθα have come for ἐλήλουθα, οὐλόμενος destructive, accursed for ὀλόμενος, οὔρεα mountains from ὄρος, Οὐλύμποιο of Olympus from Ὄλυμπος. ο before a vowel appears as οι in πνοιή breath. Similarly, ἠγάθεος very holy for ἀγάθεος; but ἠνεμόεις windy (from ἄνεμος) has the η of ὑπήνεμος under the wind (29), and τιθήμενος placing (for τιθέμενος) borrows η from τίθημι.

A short syllable under the rhythmic accent (‘ictus’) is lengthened metrically: (1) in words having three or more short syllables: the first of three shorts (οὐλόμενος), the second of four shorts (ὑπείροχος), the third of five shorts (ἀπερείσια boundless); (2) in words in which the short ictus syllable is followed by two longs and a short (Οὐλύμποιο). A short syllable not under the rhythmic accent is lengthened when it is preceded and followed by a long; thus, any vowel preceded by ϝ (πνείω breathe = πνεϝω), ι or υ before a vowel (προθῡμί̄ῃσι zeal).

29

The initial short vowel of a word forming the second part of a compound is often lengthened: στρατηγός general (στρατός army + ἄγειν to lead 887 d).

30

Attic η, ᾱ .—Attic has η for original ᾱ of the earlier period, as φήμη report (Lat. fāma). Ionic also has η for original ᾱ. Doric and Aeolic retain original ᾱ (φά̄μᾱ).

a. This is true also of the ᾱ which is the result of early compensative lengthening, by which -ανσ-, -ασλ-, -ασμ-, and -ασν- changed to -ᾱσ-, -ᾱλ-, -ᾱμ-, and -ᾱν-. (See 37 b.) But in a few cases like τά̄ς for τάνς, and in πᾶσα for πάνσα (113) where the combination ανς arose at a later period, ᾱ was not changed to η. ὑφᾶναι for ὑφῆναι to weave follows τετρᾶναι to pierce.

b. Original ᾱ became η after υ, as φυή growth. In some words, however, we find ᾱ.

30 D. 1

Doric and Aeolic retain original ᾱ, as in μᾶλον apple (cp. Lat. mālum, Att. μῆλον), κᾶρυξ herald (Att. κῆρυξ). But Doric and Aeolic have original η when η interchanges with ε, as in τίθημι I place, τίθεμεν we place, μά̄τηρ μᾱτέρα mother, ποιμήν ποιμένι shepherd.

2. Ionic has η after ε, ι, and ρ. Thus, γενεή, σκιή, ἡμέρη.

31

In Attic alone this η was changed back to ᾱ:

1. When preceded by a ρ; as ἡμέρᾱ day, χώρᾱ country. This appears to have taken place even though an ο intervened: as ἀκρόᾱμα a musical piece, ἀθρόᾱ collected.

EXCEPTIONS: (a) But ρϝη was changed to ρη: as κόρη for κορϝη maiden. (b) Likewise ρη, when the result of contraction of ρεα, remained: as ὄρη from ὄρεα mountains. (c) And ρση was changed to ρρη: as κόρρη for κόρση (79) one of the temples.

2. When preceded by ε or ι: as γενεά̄ generation, σκιά̄ shadow.

This change takes place even when the η is the result of the contraction of εα: as ὑγιᾶ healthy, ἐνδεᾶ lacking, for ὑγιῆ from ὑγιε(σ)α, ἐνδεῆ from ἐνδεε(σ)α; also, if originally a ϝ intervened, as νέᾱ for νεϝᾱ young (Lat. nova).

EXCEPTIONS: Some exceptions are due to analogy: ὑγιῆ healthy, εὐφυῆ shapely (292 d) follow σαφῆ clear.

32

In the choruses of tragedy Doric ᾱ is often used for η. Thus, μά̄τηρ mother, ψῡχά̄ soul, γᾶ earth, δύστᾱνος wretched, ἔβᾱν went.

33

The dialects frequently show vowel sounds that do not occur in the corresponding Attic words.

33 D

α for ε : ἱαρός sacred, Ἄρταμις (for Ἄρτεμις), τράπω turn Dor.; ε for α : θέρσος courage Aeol., ἔρσην male, ὁρέω see, τέσσερες four ( = τέτταρες) Ion.; α for ο : διᾱκατίοι (for διᾱκόσιοι) 200 Dor., ὐπά under Aeol.; ο for α : στρότος (στρατός) army, ὄν (ἀνά) up Aeol., τέτορες (τέτταρες) four Dor.; ε for η : ἕσσων inferior (ἥττων) Ion.; ε for ο : Ἀπέλλων Dor. (also Ἀπόλλων); ε for ει : μέζων greater Ion.; ε for ι : κέρνᾱν mix ( = κιρνάναι for κεραννύναι) Aeol.; ι for ε : ἱστίη hearth Ion., ἱστίᾱ Dor. (for ἑστίᾱ), χρύ̄σιος (χρύ̄σεος) golden Aeol., θιός god Boeot., κοσμίω arrange Dor.; υ for α : πίσυρες four (τέτταρες) Hom.; υ for ο : ὄνυμα name Dor., Aeol., ἀπύ from Aeol.; ω for ου : ὦν accordingly Ion., Dor.

34

Transfer of Quantity.—ηο, ηα often exchange quantities, be coming εω, εᾱ. Thus, ληός (Epic λᾱός folk) becomes λεώς, as πόληος becomes πόλεως of a city; τεθνηότος τεθνεῶτος dead; βασιλῆα βασιλέᾱ king.

34 D

Often in Ionic: Ἀτρεΐδεω from earlier Ἀτρεΐδᾱο son of Atreus, ἱκέτεω from ἱκέτᾱο suppliant. This εω generally makes a single syllable in poetry (60). The ηο intermediate between ᾱο and εω is rarely found.

35

Qualitative Vowel Gradation.—In the same root or suffix we find an interchange among different vowels (and diphthongs) similar to the interchange in sing, sang, sung.

a. This variation appears in strong grades and in a weak grade (including actual expulsion of a vowel—in diphthongs, of the first vowel). Thus, φέρ-ω I carry, φόρ-ο-ς tribute, φώρ thief, φαρ-έ-τρᾱ quiver, δί-φ ρ-ο-ς chariot (twocarrier), λείπ-ω I leave, λέ-λοιπ-α I have left, λιπ-εῖν to leave. The interchange is quantitative in φόρ-ο-ς φώρ (cp. 27).

b. When, by the expulsion of a vowel in the weak grade, an unpronounceable combination of consonants resulted, a vowel sound was developed to render pronunciation possible. Thus, ρα or αρ was developed from ρ between consonants, as in πα-τρά-σι from ṛατρ-σι (262); and α from ν, as in αὐτό-μα-το-ν for αὐτο-μṇ-τον automaton (acting of its own will), cp. μέν-ο-ς rage, μέ-μον-α I yearn. So in ὀνομαίνω name for ὀνομṇ-[ιγλιδε]ω; cp. ὄνομα.

c. A vowel may also take the place of an original liquid or nasal after a consonant; as ἔλῡσα for ἐλῡσṃ. This ρ, λ, μ, ν in b and c is called sonant liquid or sonant nasal.

TABLE OF THE CHIEF VOWEL GRADES

N. 1.—Relatively few words show examples of all the above series of grades. Some have five grades, as πα-τήρ, πα-τέρ-α, εὐ-πά-τωρ, εὐ-πά-τορ-α, πα-τ ρ-ός.

N. 2.—ε and ι vary in πετάννῡμι πίτνημι spread out.

37

Compensatory lengthening is the lengthening of a short vowel to make up for the omission of a consonant.

a. Thus are formed κτείνω I kill for κτεν-[ιγλιδε]ω, φθείρω I destroy for φθερ-[ιγλιδε]ω, δότειρα giver for δοτερ-[ιγλιδε]α, κλί̄νω I lean for κλιν-[ιγλιδε]ω, ὀλοφύ̄ρω I lament for ὀλοφυρ-[ιγλιδε]ω.

b. α becomes η in the σ-aorist of verbs whose stems end in λ, ρ, or ν, when not preceded by ι or ρ. Thus, ἐφαν-σα becomes ἔ-φηνα I showed, but ἐπεραν-σα becomes ἐπέρᾱνα I finished. So σελήϝη moon for σελασ-νη (σέλας gleam).

c. The diphthongs ει and ου due to this lengthening are spurious (6).

37 D

1. Ionic agrees with Attic except where the omitted consonant was ϝ, which in Attic disappeared after a consonant without causing lengthening. Thus, ξεῖνος for ξένος stranger, εἵνεκα on account of (also in Dem.) for ἕνεκα, οὖρος boundary for ὅρος, κοῦρος boy for κόρος, μοῦνος alone for μόνος. These forms are also used generally in poetry.

2. Doric generally lengthens ε and ο to η and ω: ξῆνος, ὧρος, κῶρος, μῶνος. So μῶσα muse from μονσα for μοντ[ιγλιδε]α, τώς for τόνς the, ἠμί am for ἐσμι, χηλίοι 1000 for χεσλιοι, Ionic χείλιοι. (In some Doric dialects ϝ drops as in Attic (ξένος, ὅρος); and ανς, ονς may become ᾰς, ος: δεσπότᾰς lords, τός the.)

3. Aeolic has αις, εις (a genuine diphth.), οις from ανς, ενς, ονς. Thus, παῖσα all (Cretan πάνσα, Att. πᾶσα), λύ̄οισι they loose from λύ̄οντι. Elsewhere Aeol. prefers assimilated forms (ἔμεννα, ἔκλιννα, ξέννος, ἔννεκα, ὄρρος, ἔμμι, χέλλιοι). But single ν, ρ are also found, as in κόρᾱ, μόνος. Aeolic has φθέρρω, κλίννω, ὀλοφύρρω; cp. 37 a.

38

ᾱ arises from αι upon the loss of its ι (43) in ἀ̄εί always (from αἰεί), ἀ̄ετός eagle (αἰετός), κλά̄ει weeps (κλαίει), ἐλά̄ᾱ olive-tree (ἐλαίᾱ, cp. Lat. oliva).

a. This change took place only when αι was followed by ϝ (αἰϝεί, αἰϝετός from ἀϝιετος, κλαιϝει from κλαϝιει, 111, 128) or ι (Θηβᾱίς the Thebaïd from Θηβαιίς); and only when ϝ or ι was not followed by ο.

39

Shortening.—A long vowel may be shortened before another long vowel: βασιλέων from βασιλήων of kings, νεῶν from νηῶν of ships, τεθνεώς from τεθνηώς dead.

39 D

In the Ionic genitive of  stems (214 D. 8) -εων is from -ηων out of -ᾱων. So in Ionic βασιλέα from βασιλῆα king. So even before a short vowel in Hom. ἥρω̆ος, ἥρω̆ι hero (cp. 148 D. 3).

40

A long vowel before ι, υ, a nasal, or a liquid + a following consonant was regularly shortened: νᾰῦς from original νᾱυς ship, ἐμίγεν from ἐ-μιγη-ντ were mixed. The long vowel was often introduced again, as Ion. νηῦς ship.

41

Addition.—α, ε, ο are sometimes prefixed before λ, μ, ρ, ϝ (prothetic vowels). Thus, ἀ-λείφω anoint with oil, λίπος fat; ἐ-ρυθρός red (cp. Lat. ruber), ἐ-είκοσι from ἐ-(ϝ)είκοσι; ὀ-μόργνῡμι wipe; ἐ-χθές and χθές yesterday, ἴ-κτις weasel (κτιδέη weasel-skin helmet) are doubtful cases.

42

Development.—A medial vowel is sometimes developed from λ or ν between two consonants; thus αλ, λα; αρ, ρα; αν (35 b). Also (rarely) in forms like Ion. βάραγχος = Att. βράγχος hoarseness.

43

Disappearance.—The ι and υ of diphthongs often disappear before a following vowel. Thus, ὑός from υἱός son, βο-ός genitive of βοῦ-ς ox, cow. ι and υ here became semivowels ([ιγλιδε], [υγλιδε]), which are not written. Cp. 148 D. 3.

43 D

So in Hdt. κέεται for κείεται lies, βαθέα for βαθεῖα deep.

44

a. The disappearance of ε before a vowel is often called hyphaeresis (ὑφαίρεσις omission). Thus Ionic νοσσός chick for νεοσσός, ὁρτή for ἑορτή festival; ἀδεῶς fearlessly for ἀδεέως. Here ε was sounded nearly like y and was not written.

44 a. D

Cp. Hom. θεοί A 18 (one syllable). ι becomes [ιγλιδε] in Hom. πόλιος (two syllables) Φ 567. ι rarely disappears: δῆμον for δήμιον belonging to the people M 213.

b. The disappearance of a short vowel between consonants is called syncope (συγκοπή cutting up). Thus πί̄πτω fall for πι-πετ-ω, πατρός father for πατέρος. Syncopated forms show the weak grade of vowel gradation (35, 36).

45

Assimilation.—A vowel may be assimilated to the vowel standing in the following syllable: βιβλίον book from βυβλίον (βύβλος papyrus).

a. On assimilation in distracted verbs (ὁρόω see, etc.), see 643 ff., 652.