PRONOUNS

1190

The nominative of the personal pronoun is usually omitted except when emphatic, e.g. in contrasts, whether expressed or implied: ἐπεὶ ὑ̄μεῖς ἐμοὶ οὐ θέλετε πείθεσθαι, ἐγω σὺν ὑ̄μῖν ἕψομαι since you are not willing to obey me, I will follow along with you X. A. 1.3.6. In contrasts the first pronoun is sometimes omitted (930).

1191

Where there is no contrast the addition of the pronoun may strengthen the verb:

.

1192

The forms ἐμοῦ, ἐμοί, and ἐμέ and the accented forms of the pronoun of the second person (325 a) are used when emphatic and usually after prepositions:

. Cp. 187 N. 2. On the reflexive use of the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, see 1222-1224.

1193

ἐγώ, σύ (ἐμός, σός) are rarely used of an imaginary person (‘anybody’): D. 9.17, X. R. A. 1.11.

1194

The nominative of the pronoun of the third person is replaced by ἐκεῖνος (of absent persons), ὅδε, οὗτος (of present persons), ὁ μέν . . . ὁ δέ (at the beginning of a sentence), and by αὐτός in contrasts. The oblique cases of the foregoing replace οὗ, etc., which in Attic prose are usually indirect reflexives (1228, 1229). οὗ and ἕ in Attic prose occur chiefly in poetical passages of Plato; in Attic poetry they are personal pronouns. The pronoun of the third person is very rare in the orators.

1195

Homer uses ἕο, οἷ, etc., as personal pronouns ( = αὐτοῦ, αὐτῷ, etc., in Attic), in which case they are enclitic: διὰ μαντοσύνην, τήν οἱ πόρε Φοῖβος by the art of divination, which Phoebus gave to him A 72. Homer also uses ἕο, οἷ, etc., either as direct ( = ἑαυτοῦ, etc., 1218) or as indirect reflexives ( = αὐτοῦ, etc., 1225). In the former case they are orthotone; in the latter, either enclitic or orthotone. Thus, οί̂ παῖδα ἐοικότα γείνατο he begat a son like unto himself E 800, οὔ τινά φησιν ὁμοῖον οἶ ἔμεναι Δαναῶν he says there is no one of the Danaans like unto himself I 306. Hdt. agrees with Hom. except that εὗ, οἷ are not direct reflexives and orthotone; σφίσι (not σφί) is reflexive.

1196

The possessive pronouns (330) of the first and second persons are the equivalents of the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns: ἐμός ῀ μου, σός ῀ σου, ἡμέτερος ῀ ἡμῶν, ὑ̄μέτερος ῀ ὑ̄μῶν.

a. When the possessives refer to a definite, particular thing, they have the article, which always precedes (1182); the personal pronouns have the predicate position (1185). Distinguish ὁ ἐμὸς φίλος, ὁ φίλος ὁ ἐμός, ὁ φίλος μου my friend from φίλος ἐμός, φίλος μου a friend of mine.

b. A word may stand in the genitive in apposition to the personal pronoun implied in a possessive pronoun. See 977.

1197

A possessive pronoun may have the force of an objective genitive (cp. 1331) of the personal pronoun:

. (φιλίᾱ ἡ ἐμή usually means my friendship (for others)).

1198

The possessive pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes reflexive (when the subject of the sentence and the possessor are the same person), sometimes not reflexive.

FIRST AND SECOND PERSONS SINGULAR

1. Not reflexive (adjective my, thy (your); pronoun mine, thine (yours)).

ἐμός, σός: ὁρᾷ τὸν ἐμὸν φίλον he sees my friend, ὁρᾷ τὸν σὸν πατέρα she sees your father, στέργει τὸν ἐμὸν πατέρα he loves my father (or τὸν πατέρα τὸν ἐμόν or πατέρα τὸν ἐμόν; or τὸν πατέρα μου or μου τὸν πατέρα),

. 5.

2. Reflexive (my own, thine (your) own).

a. ἐμαυτοῦ, σεαυτοῦ , in the attributive position (very common): ἔλαβον τὸν ἐμαυτοῦ μισθόν (or τὸν μισθὸν τὸν ἐμαυτοῦ) I received my (own) pay, τὸν ἀδελφὸν τὸν ἐμαυτοῦ ἔπεμψα I sent my (own) brother Aes. 2.94, κἀ̄πὶ τοῖς σαυτῆς κακοῖσι κἀ̄πὶ τοῖς ἐμοῖς γελᾷς; art thou laughing at thine own misery and at mine? S. El. 879.

b. ἐμός, σός (less common): στέργω τὸν ἐμὸν πατέρα I love my (own) father, στέργεις τὴν σὴν μητέρα you love your (own) mother,

, .

c. ἐμὸς αυ᾿τοῦ, σὸς αὐτοῦ (poetical): τὸν ἐμὸν αὐτοῦ πατέρα ( β 45, S. O. T. 416).

d. μου, σου (rare): τὸν πατέρα μου Ant. 1.23.

N.—When the possessor is not to be mistaken, the article alone is placed before the substantive and the possessive or reflexive pronoun is omitted (cp. 1121). Thus, στέργεις τὸν πατέρα you love your (own) father, στέργει τὸν πατέρα he loves his (own) father, στέργουσι τὸν πατέρα they love their (own) father.

FIRST AND SECOND PERSONS PLURAL

1. Not reflexive (adjective our, your; pronoun ours, yours).

a. ἡμέτερος, ὑ̄μέτερος : ὁ ἡμέτερος φίλος our friend (more common than ὁ φίλο<*> ἡμῶν), ὁ ὑ̄μέτερος φίλος your friend (more common than ὁ φίλος ὑ̄μῶν),

.

2. Reflexive (our own, your own).

a. ἡμέτερος, ὑ̄μέτερος (common): στέργομεν τὸν ἡμέτερον φίλον we love our own friend, στέργετε τὸν ὑ̄μέτερον φίλον you love your own friend.

b. Usually the intensive αὐτῶν is used with ἡμέτερος, ὑ̄μέτερος in agreement with ἡμῶν (ὑ̄μῶν) implied in the possessive forms. This gives a stronger form of reflexive. Thus:

ἡμέτερος αὐτῶν, ὑ̄μέτερος αὐτῶν: στέργομεν τὸν ἡμέτερον αὐτῶν φίλον we love our own friend,

; στέργετε τὸν ὑ̄μέτερον αὐτῶν φίλον you love your own friend, .

c. ἡμῶν, ὑ̄μῶν (rare): αἰτιώμεθατοὺς πατέρας ἡμῶν let us accuse our (own) fathers P. Lach. 179c.

d. ἡμῶν αὐτῶν, ὑ̄μῶν αὐτῶν (very rare): δίκαιον ἡμᾶς . . . φαίνεσθαι μήτε ἡμῶν

, .

THIRD PERSON SINGULAR

1. Not reflexive (his, her, its).

a. αὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς, αὐτοῦ in the predicate position (very common): ὁρῶ τὸν φίλον αὐτοῦ (αὐτῆς) I see his (her) friend,

.

b. ἐκείνου, etc., or τούτου , etc. in the attributive position (very common): ὁρῶ τὸν ἐμὸν φίλον, οὐ τὸν ἐκείνου I see my friend, not his,

, .

c. ὅς, ἥ, ὅν, Hom. ἑός, ἑή, ἑόν (poetical):

. Hom. has εὗ rarely for αὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς.

2. Reflexive (his own, her own).

a. ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς , in the attributive position (very common): στέργει τὸν ἑαυτοῦ φίλον he loves his own friend, ο·ρᾷ τὴν ἑαυτῆς μητέρα she sees her own mother,

, . This is the only way in prose to express his own, her own.

b. ὅς ( ἑός ): poetical. Sometimes in Homer ὅς (ἑός) has the sense of own with no reference to the third person (1230 a).

c. ὃς αὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς (poetical): ὃν αὐτοῦ πατέρα (K 204).

THIRD PERSON PLURAL

1. Not reflexive (their).

a. αὐτῶν in the predicate position (very common): ὁ φίλος αὐτῶν their friend.

b. ἐκείνων, τούτων in the attributive position (very common): ὁ τούτων (ἐκείνων) φίλος their friend,

.

c. σφέων (Ionic): Hdt. 5.58.

2. Reflexive (their own).

a. ἑαυτῶν (very common): στέργουσι τοὺς ἑαυτῶν φίλους they love their own friends,

.

b. σφέτερος αὐτῶν, the intensive αὐτῶν agreeing with σφῶν implied in σφέτερος (common):

.

c. σφῶν αὐτῶν, without the article (rare):

. Cp. 1234. τὸν σφῶν αὐτῶν is not used.

d. σφέτερος (rare in prose):

.

e. σφῶν in the predicate position, occasionally in Thucydides, as τοὺς ξυμμάχουι ἐδέδισαν σφῶν they were afraid of their own allies 5. 14. Cp. 1228 N. 2.

1203

Summary of possessive forms (poetical forms in parenthesis).

a. Not reflexive

N.—ἡμέτερος and ὑ̄μέτερος are more used than ἡμῶν and ὑ̄μῶν.

b. Reflexive

N.—In the plural ἡμῶν αὐτῶν, ὑ̄μῶν αὐτῶν are replaced by ἡμέτερος αὐτῶν, ὑ̄μέτερος αὐτῶν, and these forms are commoner than ἡμέτερος, ὑ̄μέτερος. σφέτερος αὐτῶν is less common than ἑαυτῶν. σφέτερος in poetry may mean mine own, thine own, your own.

1204

αὐτός is used as an adjective and as a pronoun. It has three distinct uses: (1) as an intensive adjective pronoun it means self (ipse). (2) As an adjective pronoun, when preceded by the article, it means same (idem). (3) In oblique cases as the personal pronoun of the third person, him, her, it, them (eum, eam, id, eos, eas, ea).

1205

Only the first two uses are Homeric. In Hom. αὐτός denotes the principal person or thing, in opposition to what is subordinate, and is intensive by contrast: αὐτὸν καὶ θεράποντα the man himself and his attendant Z 18 (cp. σώσᾱσ᾽ αὐτὸν καὶ παῖδας P. G. 511e and see 1208 d). On αὐτός as a reflexive, see 1228 a; on αὐτός emphatic with other pronouns, see 1233 ff.

1206

αὐτός is intensive (self)

a. In the nominative case, when standing alone: αὐτοὶ τὴν γῆν ἔσχον they (the Athenians) seized the land themselves T. 1.114. Here αὐτός emphasizes the word understood and is not a personal pronoun.

b. In any case, when in the predicate position (1168) with a substantive, or in agreement with a pronoun: αὐτὸς ὁ ἀνήρ, ὁ ἀνὴρ αὐτός the man himself, αὐτοῦ τοῦ ἀνδρός, τοῦ ἀνδρὸς αὐτοῦ, etc.

1207

With a proper name or a word denoting an individual, the article is omitted:

, πρὸ αὐτοῦ βασιλέως in front of the Great King himself 1. 7. 11.

1208

The word emphasized may be an oblique case which must be supplied: ἔλεγε δὲ καὶ αὐτὸς ὁ Βρᾱσίδᾱς τῇ Θεσσαλῶν γῇ καὶ αὐτοῖς (scil. τοῖς Θεσσαλοῖς) φίλος ὢν ἰέναι and Brasidas himself also said that he came as a friend to the country of the Thessalians and to the Thessalians themselves T. 4.78, δεῖ τοίνυν τοῦτ᾽ ἤδη σκοπεῖν (scil. ἡμᾶς)

.

1209

Special renderings of the emphatic αὐτός:

a. By itself, in itself, unaided, alone, etc.:

, τὸ πλέον τοῦ χωρίου αὐτὸ καρτερὸν ὑπῆρχε the greater part of the place was strong in itself (without artificial fortification) T. 4.4. On αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσι men and all, see 1525. αὐτό with a noun of any gender is used by Plato to denote the abstract idea of a thing: αὐτὸ τὸ καλόν ideal beauty R. 493 e, αὐτὸ δικαιοσύνη ideal justice 472 c.

b. Just, merely:

, .

c. Voluntarily:

.

d. The Master (said by a pupil or slave): Αὐτὸς ἔφᾱ the Master (Pythagoras) said it (ipse dixit) Diog. Laert. 8.1. 46,

.

e. With ordinals: ᾑρέθη πρεσβευτὴς δέκατος αὐτός he was chosen envoy with nine others (i.e. himself the tenth) X. H. 2.2.17.

1210

After the article, in the attributive position (1154), αὐτός in any case means same.

Thus ὁ αὐτὸς ἀνήρ, rarely (ὁ) ἀνὴρ ὁ αὐτός the same man;

, , .

a. So as a predicate: ἐγὼ μὲν ὁ αὐτός εἰμι, ἱ̄μεῖς δὲ μεταβάλλετε I am the same, it is you who change T. 2.61.

1211

In Hom. αὐτός, without the article, may mean the same:

.

1212

αὐτός when unemphatic and standing alone in the oblique cases means him, her, it, them.

.

1213

Unemphatic αὐτοῦ, etc., do not stand at the beginning of a sentence.

1214

αὐτοῦ, etc., usually take up a preceding noun (the anaphoric use): καλέσᾱς δὲ Δάμνιππον λέγω πρὸς αὐτὸν τάδε summoning Damnippus, I speak to him as follows L. 12.14. But an oblique case of αὐτός is often suppressed where English employs the pronoun of the third person: ἐμπιπλὰ̄ς ἁπάντων τὴν γνώμην<*> ἀπέπεμπε having satisfied the minds of all he dismissed them X. A. 1.7.8.

1215

αὐτοῦ, etc., may be added pleonastically;

.

1216

αὐτοῦ, etc., are emphatic (= αὐτοῦ τούτου, etc.) in a main clause when followed by a relative clause referring to αὐτοῦ, etc.: εἴρηκας αὐτό, δι᾽ ὅπερ ἔγωγε

. But when the relative clause precedes, αὐτοῦ, etc., are not emphatic: .

1217

αὐτοῦ, etc., are often used where, after a conjunction, we expect the oblique case of a relative pronoun:

.

1218

Direct Reflexives.—The reflexive pronouns are used directly when they refer to the chief word (usually the subject) of the sentence or clause in which they stand.

, , καθ᾽ ἑαυτοὺς βουλευσάμενοι τὰ ὅπλα παρέδοσαν καὶ σφᾶς αὐτούς after deliberating apart by themselves they surrendered their arms and themselves (their persons) T. 4.38. Less commonly the reference is to the object, which often stands in a prominent place: .

1219

The direct reflexives are regular in prose if, in the same clause, the pronoun refers emphatically to the subject and is the direct object of the main verb: ἐμαυτὸν (not ἐμὲ) ἐπαινῶ I praise myself. The usage of poetry is freer:

.

1220

The reflexives may retain or abandon their differentiating force. Contrast the third example in 1218 with παρέδοσαν σφᾶς αὐτούς they surrendered (themselves) T. 7.82.

1221

The reflexives of the first and second persons are not used in a subordinate clause to refer to the subject of the main clause.

1222

The personal pronouns are sometimes used in a reflexive sense:

(contrast ), δοκῶ μοι ἀδύνατος εἶναι I (seem to myself to be) think I am unable P. R. 368b (less usually δοκῶ ἐμαυτῷ). So in Hom.: ἐγὼν ἐμὲ λύ̄σομαι I will ransom myself K 378. Cp. 1195.

1223

ἐμέ, σέ, not ἐμαυτόν, σεαυτόν, are generally used as subject of the infinitive:

.

1224

The use in 1222, 1223 generally occurs when there is a contrast between two persons, or when the speaker is not thinking of himself to the exclusion of others. Cp. 1974.

1225

Indirect Reflexives.—The reflexive pronouns are used indirectly when, in a dependent clause, they refer to the subject of the main clause.

Ὀρέστης ἔπεισεν Ἀθηναίους ἑαυτὸν κατάγειν Orestes persuaded the Athenians to restore him (self) T. 1.111,

. Cp. sibi, se.

1226

When the subject of the leading clause is not the same as the subject of the subordinate clause or of the accusative with the infinitive (1975), the context must decide to which subject the reflexive pronoun refers: (ὁ κατήγορος) ἔφη . . . ἀναπείθοντα τοὺς νέους αὐτὸν . . . οὕτω διατιθέναι τοὺς ἐαυτῷ συνόντας κ.τ.λ. the accuser said that, by persuading the young, he (Socrates) so disposed his (i.e. Socrates') pupils, etc. X. M. 1.2.52.

1227

ἑαυτοῦ, etc., are rarely used as indirect reflexives in adjectival clauses: τὰ ναυά̄για, ὅσα πρὸς τῇ ἑαυτῶν (γῇ)

.

1228

Instead of the indirect ἑαυτοῦ, etc., there may be used

a. The oblique cases of αὐτός:

. When ἑαυτοῦ, etc. precede, αὐτοῦ, etc. are usual instead of the direct reflexive: .

b. Of the forms of the third personal pronoun, οἷ and σφίσι (rarely οὗ, σφεῖς, σφῶν, and σφᾶς). Thus,

, , , ἔφη δέ, ἐπειδὴ οὗ ἐκβῆναι τὴν ψῡχὴν . . . . . . ἀφικνεῖσθαι σφᾶς εἰς τόπον τινὰ δαιμόνιον he said that when his soul had departed out of him, they (he and others) came to a mysterious place P. R. 614b. See 1195.

N. 1.—σφεῖς may be employed in a dependent sentence if the pronoun is itself the subject of a subordinate statement, and when the reference to the subject of the leading verb is demanded by way of contrast or emphasis:

. Here αὐτοί (ipsi) is possible. In the singular αὐτός is necessary.

N. 2.—Thucydides often uses the plural forms in reference to the nearest subject: τοὺς ξυμμάχους ἐδέδισαν σφῶν they were afraid of their own allies ( = σφῶν αὐτῶν) 5. 14.

N. 3.—ἑαυτοῦ, etc., are either direct or indirect reflexives, οἷ and σφίσι are only indirect reflexives.

1229

οὗ, σφίσι, etc., and the oblique cases of αὐτός are used when the subordinate clause does not form a part of the thought of the principal subject. This is usual in subordinate indicative clauses, and very common in ὅτι and ὡς clauses, in indirect questions, and in general in subordinate clauses not directly dependent on the main verb: τῶν πρέσβεων, οἳ σφίσι (1481) περὶ τῶν σπονδῶν ἔτυχον ἀπόντες, ἠμέλουν they thought no more about their envoys, who were absent on the subject of the truce T. 5.44, ἐφοβοῦντο μὴ ἐπιθοῖντο αὐτοῖς οἱ πολέμιοι they were afraid lest the enemy should attack them (selves) X. A. 3.4.1.

1230

The reflexive pronoun of the third person is sometimes used for that of the first or second:

, .

a. In Homer ὅς his is used for ἐμός or σός:

.

1231

Reciprocal Reflexive.—The plural forms of the reflexive pronouns are often used for the reciprocal ἀλλήλων, ἀλλήλοις, etc.: ἡμῖν αὐτοῖς διαλεξόμεθα we will converse with (ourselves) one another D. 48.6.

1232

But the reciprocal must be used when the idea ‘each for or with himself’ is expressed or implied: μᾶλλον χαίρουσιν ἐπὶ τοῖς ἀλλήλων κακοῖς ἢ τοῖς αὑτῶν ἰδίοις ἀγαθοῖς ( = ἢ ἐπὶ τοῖς αὑτοῦ ἕκαστος ἀγαθοῖς) they take greater pleasure in one another's troubles than each man in his own good fortune I. 4.168,

. Reciprocal and reflexive may occur in the same sentence without difference of meaning (D. 48.9). The reflexive is regularly used when there is a contrast (expressed or implied) with ἄλλοι: φθονοῦσιν ἑαυτοῖς μᾶλλον ἢ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἀνθρώποις they envy one another more than (they envy) the rest of mankind X. M. 3.5.16.

1262

The interrogative pronouns are used substantively τίς; who? or adjectively τίς ἀνήρ; what man?

1263

The interrogatives (pronouns and adverbs, 340, 346) are used in direct and in indirect questions. In indirect questions the indefinite relatives ὅστις, etc., are generally used instead of the interrogatives.

τί βούλεται ἡμῖν χρῆσθαι; for what purpose does he desire to employ us? X. A. 1.3.18, οὐκ οἶδα ὅ τι ἄν τις χρήσαιτο αὐτοῖς I do not know for what service any one could employ them 3. 1. 40, A. πηνίκ᾽ ἐστὶν ἄρα τῆς ἡμέρας; B. ὁπηνίκα; A. What's the time of day? B. (You ask), what time of day it is? Ar. Av. 1499.

N.—For peculiarities of Interrogative Sentences, see 2666, 2668.

1264

τί is used for τίνα as the predicate of a neuter plural subject when the general result is sought and the subject is considered as a unit: ταῦτα δὲ τί ἐστιν; but these things, what are they? Aes. 3.167. τίνα emphasizes the details: τίν᾽ οὖν ἐστι ταῦτα; D. 18.246.

1265

τίς asks a question concerning the class, τί concerning the nature of a thing:

, τί σωφροσύνη, τί πολῑτικός; what is temperance, what is a statesman? X. M. 1.1.16, φθόνον δὲ σκοπῶν ὅ τι εἴη considering what envy is (quid sit invidia) X. M. 3.9.8.

1266

The indefinite pronoun τὶς, τὶ is used both substantively (some one) and adjectively (any, some). τὶς, τὶ cannot stand at the beginning of a sentence (181 b).

1267

In the singular, τὶς is used in a collective sense: everybody (for anybody); cp. Germ. man, Fr. on:

. ἕκαστός τις, πᾶς τις each one, every one are generally used in this sense. τὶς may be a covert allusion to a known person: δώσει τις δίκην some one (i.e. you) will pay the penalty Ar. Ran. 554. It may also stand for I or we. Even when added to a noun with the article, τὶς denotes the indefiniteness of the person referred to: ὅταν δ᾽ ὁ κύ̄ριος παρῇ τις, ὑ̄μῶν ὅστις ἐστὶν ἡγεμών κτλ. but whenever your master arrives, whoever he be that is your leader, etc. S. O. C. 289. With a substantive, τὶς may often be rendered a, an, as in ; or, to express indefiniteness of nature, by a sort of, etc., as in εἰ μὲν θεοί τινές εἰσιν οἱ δαίμονες if the ‘daimones’ are a sort of gods P. A. 27d.

1268

With adjectives, adverbs, and numerals, τὶς may strengthen or weaken an assertion, apologize for a comparison, and in general qualify a statement:

, , , . But in παρεγένοντό τινες δύο νῆες the numeral is appositional to τινές (certain, that is, two ships joined them) T. 8.100.

1269

τὶς, τὶ sometimes means somebody , or something, of importance:

, .

1270

τὶ is not omitted in

. ἤ τις ἢ οὐδείς means few or none X. C. 7.5.45, .

1277

The pronoun ἀλλήλοιν expresses reciprocal relation:

.

1278

To express reciprocal relation Greek uses also (1) the middle forms (1726); (2) the reflexive pronoun (1231); or (3) a substantive is repeated: ἀνὴρ ἕλεν ἄνδρα man fell upon man O 328.

On Relative Pronouns see under Complex Sentences (2493 ff.).