268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of language, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of thought. A form of words, like ō puerum pulchrum! (oh! beautiful boy), expresses a thought and might even be called a sentence; though it does not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all.
At a very early period of spoken language, word forms were no doubt significant in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language—just as to a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary form of proposition: as a child might say fire bright; horse run. With this began the first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there was no distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a later stage forms were differentiated in function and—by various processes of composition which cannot be fully traced—Inflections were developed. These served to express person, tense, case , and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts of Speech.
Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particular Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.
In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two simple sentence forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sentences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in conjunctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination). In this way, through various stages of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were produced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea I beseech you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaesō and īgnōscās were used side by side, quaesō īgnōscās; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression in a conjunction, quaesō ut īgnōscās, forming a complex sentence. The results of these processes constitute the subject matter of Syntax.
269. A sentence is a form of words which contains a statement, a question, an exclamation, or a command.
a. A sentence in the form of a statement is called a Declarative Sentence.
Canis currit. The dog runs.
b. A sentence in the form of a question is called an Interrogative Sentence.
Canisne currit? Does the dog run?
c. A sentence in the form of an exclamation is called an Exclamatory Sentence.
Quam celeriter currit canis! How fast the dog runs!
d. A sentence in the form of a command, an exhortation, or an entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence.
Ī, curre per Alpīs. Go, run across the Alps.
Currat canis. Let the dog run.
Subject and Predicate
270. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of. The predicate is that which is said of the subject. Thus in Canis currit (The dog runs), canis is the subject, and currit the predicate.
271. The subject of a sentence is usually a noun or pronoun, or some word or group of words used as a noun.
Equitēs ad Caesarem vēnērunt. The cavalry came to Cæsar.
Hūmānum est errāre. T o err is human.
Quaeritur num mors malum sit. The question is whether death is an evil.
a. But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of the verb.
| sedē-mus we sit | curri-tis you run | inqui-t says he |
272. The predicate of a sentence may be a verb (as in, Canis currit The dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and a noun or adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in Caesar cōnsul erat Cæsar was consul). Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective, and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective). Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, cōnsul the predicate noun, and erat the copula (see § 283).
Transitive and Intransitive
273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.
Frātrem cecīdit. He slew his brother.
Cadō I fall (or am falling).
Sōl lūcet The sun shines (or is shining).
Note 1— Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the word which completes their sense. Thus, Mēnsam fēcit [He made a table (which was not in existence before)], is distinguished from Mēnsam percussit [He struck a table (which already existed)].
Note 2— A transitive verb may often be used absolutely, i.e. without any object expressed where the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite.
Arat. He is ploughing.
Quid? What (is he ploughing)?
Agrum suum. His land.
Note 3— Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter Verbs respectively.
Object
274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of a verb is called the Direct Object. A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb is called the Indirect Object. Only transitive verbs can have a direct object; but an indirect object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs (§ 362, § 366).
Pater vocat filium (dir. obj.).
The father calls his son.
Mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit.
He showed me a field.
Mihi (ind. obj.) placet.
It is pleasing to me.
Note— The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed distinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 388.a).
a. With certain verbs, the genitive, dative, or ablative is used where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct object (Objective).
Hominem videō. I see the man. (accusative)
Hominī serviō. I serve the man. (dative, see § 367).
Hominis misereor. I pity the man. (genitive, see § 354.a).
Homine amīcō ūtor. I treat the man as a friend. (ablative, see § 410).
b. Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by an intransitive verb with a preposition.
Petit aprum. He aims at the boar.
Laudem affectat. He strives after praise.
Cūrat valētūdinem. He takes care of his health.
Meum cāsum doluērunt. They grieved at my misfortune.
Rīdet nostram āmentiam (Quinct. 55) He laughs at our stupidity.
275. When a transitive verb is changed from the active to the passive voice, the direct object becomes the subject and is put in the nominative case.
Active: Pater fīlium vocat. The father calls his son.
Passive: Fīlius ā patre vocātur. The son is called by his father.
Active: Lūnam et stellās vidēmus. We see the moon and the stars.
Passive: Lūna et stellae videntur. The moon and stars are seen (appear).
Modification
276. A subject or a predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause). The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in the same way.
a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an appositive (§ 282), or the oblique case of a noun. Thus in the sentence
Vir fortis patienter fert. A brave man endures patiently.
the adjective fortis (brave) modifies the subject vir (man), and the adverb patienter (patiently), modifies the predicate fert (endures).
b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs. Thus in the sentence
Puerī patrem videō. I see the boy's father.
the genitive puerī limits patrem by excluding any other father.
277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an adjective or an adverb. Thus in the sentence
Vir fuit summā nōbilitāte. He was a man of the highest nobility.
the words summā nōbilitāte (of the highest nobility) are used for the adjective nōbilis (noble) or nōbilissimus (very noble) and are called an Adjective Phrase.
So in the sentence
Māgnā celeritāte vēnit. He came with great speed.
the words māgnā celeritāte (with great speed) are used for the adverb celeriter (quickly) or celerrimē (very quickly) and are called an Adverbial Phrase.
278. Sentences are either simple or compound.
a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are said to be Coordinate. They are usually connected by a Coordinate Conjunction (§ 223.a); but, this is sometimes omitted.
dīvide et imperā divide and control
BUT
Vēnī, vīdī, vīcī. I came, I saw, I conquered.
b. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called the Main Clause. This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a Subordinate Conjunction (§ 223.b) or a Relative.
Ōderint dum metuant.
Let them hate so
long as they fear.
Servum mīsit quem sēcum habēbat.
He sent
the slave whom he had with him.
A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is sometimes called Complex.
Note— A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.
279. Subordinate clauses are of various kinds.
a. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb is called a Relative Clause.
Mosa prōfluit ex monte Vosegō, quī est in fīnibus Lingonum. (B. G.
4.10)
The Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the Lingones.
For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sentences, see § 308.f.
b. A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Temporal Clause.
Cum tacent, clāmant ( Cat. 1.21)
While they are silent, they cry aloud.
Hominēs aegrī morbō gravī, cum iactantur aestū febrīque, sī aquam gelidam biberint, prīmō relevārī
videntur (id.1.31)
Men suffering with a severe sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold water, seem at first to be relieved.
c. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by sī (if, or some equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
Thus, sī aquam gelidam biberint, prīmō relevārī videntur (in b, above) is a Conditional Sentence, and sī . . . biberint is a Conditional Clause.
d. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final Clause.
edō ut vīvam.
I eat to live (that I may live).
mīsit lēgātōs quī dīcerent
he sent
ambassadors to say (who should say)
e. A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Consecutive Clause.1
Tam longē aberam ut nōn vidērem.
I was
too far away to see (so far away that I did not see).
280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required by usage to be in the same gender, number, case, or person. The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords.
a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied in that word. This use is called Synesis, or cōnstrūctiō ad sēnsum (construction according to sense).
281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. The descriptive noun may be either an appositive (§ 282 below) or a predicate noun (§ 283 below).
Apposition
282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Appositive, and is said to be in apposition.
Externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungēbat animōs. (Liv.
2.39)
Fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts.
[Here the appositive belongs to the subject.]
Quattuor hīc prīmum ōmen equōs vīdī. (Aen. 3.537)
I saw here four horses, the first omen.
[Here both nouns are in the predicate.]
Litterās Graecās senex didicī. (Cat. M. 26)
I learned Greek when an old man.
[Here senex, though in apposition with the subject of didicī, really states something further: viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate Apposition).]
a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition.
Nec P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clārissimī virī atque amplissimī, vim tribūnīciam sustinēre
potuērunt. (Clu. 95)
Neither Publius Popilius nor Quintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could withstand the power of the tribunes.
Gnaeus et Pūblius Scīpiōnēs
Cneius and
Publius Scipio (the Scipios).
b. An Adjective may be used as an appositive.
Ea Sex. Rōscium inopem recēpit. (Rosc. Am. 27)
She received Sextus Roscius in his poverty (needy).
c. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and Number when it can.
Sequuntur nātūram, optimam ducem. (Lael. 19)
They follow nature, the best guide.
omnium doctrīnārum inventrīcēs Athēnās (De Or. 1.13)
Athens, discoverer of all learning
Note— But such agreement is often impossible.
Ōlim truncus eram fīculnus, inūtile līgnum. (Hor. S. 1.8.1)
I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log.
d. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 427) is put in the ablative, with or without the preposition in.
Antiochīae, celebrī quondam urbe (Arch. 4)
at Antioch, once a famous city
Albae cōnstitērunt, in urbe
mūnītā. (Phil. 4.6)
They halted at Alba, a fortified town.
For a genitive in apposition with a possessive pronoun or an adjective, see § 302.
For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see § 343.d.
For the construction with nōmen est, see § 373.a.
Predicate Noun or Adjective
283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective. The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when so used is called the copula (i.e. connective). Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the so-called copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made, to be named, to appear, and the like.
284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject.
Pācis semper auctor fuī. (Lig. 28)
I have always been an adviser of peace.
Quae pertinācia quibusdam, eadem aliīs cōnstantia vidērī
potest. (Marc. 31)
What may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.
Êius mortis sedētis ultōrēs. (Mil. 79)
You sit as avengers of his death.
Habeātur vir ēgregius Paulus. (Cat. 4.21)
Let Paulus be regarded as an extraordinary man.
Ego patrōnus exstitī. (Rosc. Am. 5)
I have come forward as an advocate.
Dīcit nōn omnīs bonōs esse beātōs.
He
says that not all good men are happy.
a. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the plural.
Cōnsulēs creantur Caesar et Servīlius. (B. C. 3.1)
Cæsar and Servilius are elected consuls.
b. Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb.
Sunt virī fortēs.
There are
(exists) brave men.
Cf. Vīxēre fortēs ante Agamemnona (Hor. Od. 4.9.25)
Brave men lived before Agamemnon.
For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see § 392 and § 415, Note
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
285. Adjectives are either attributive or predicate.
bonus imperātor a good commander
stellae lūcidae bright stars
verbum Graecum a Greek word
Stellae lūcidae erant.
The stars were
bright.
Sit Scīpiō clārus. (Cat. 4.21)
Let Scipio be illustrious.
hominēs mītīs reddidit. (Inv. 1.2)
has rendered men mild
Tria praedia Capitōnī propria trāduntur. (Rosc. Am.
21)
Three farms are handed over to Capito as his own.
Cōnsilium cēpērunt plēnum sceleris. (id. 28)
They formed a plan full of villany.
Note— A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb (§ 283); it may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or the like (§ 393, Note); or it may be used in apposition like a noun (§ 282.b).
Rules of Agreement
286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case.
vir fortis
a brave man
illa mulier
that woman
urbium māgnārum
of great cities
cum ducentīs mīlitibus
with two hundred
soldiers
imperātor victus est
the general was
beaten
secūtae sunt tempestātēs
storms
followed
Note— All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns and to participles.
a. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive).
Nīsus et Euryalus prīmī (Aen. 5.294)
Nisus and Euryalus first
Caesaris omnī et grātiā et opibus fruor. (Fam. 1.9.21)
I enjoy all Cæsar's favor and resources.
Note— An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is occasionally plural (synesis, § 280.a)
Iuba cum Labiēnō captī. (B. Afr. 52)
Juba and Labienus were taken.
b. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied (synesis, § 280.a).
pars certāre parātī (Aen. 5.108)
a part ready to contend
Colōniae aliquot dēductae, Prīscī Latīnī appellātī. (Liv.
1.3)
Several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old
Latins.
Multitūdō convictī sunt. (Tac. Ann. 15.44)
A multitude were convicted.
māgna pars raptae (id.1.9)
a large part [of the women] were seized.
Note— A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive genitive by which it is limited.
vēlōcissimum animālium delphīnus est. (Plin. N. H. 9.20)
The dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures.
287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. In such cases:
multae operae ac labōris
of much
trouble and toil
vīta mōrēsque meī
my life and
character
sī rēs, sī vi, sī tempus ūllum dīgnum fuit (Mil. 19)
if any thing, if any man, if any time was fit
factus est strepitus et admurmurātiō (Verr. 1.45)
a noise of assent was made (noise and murmur).
Note— This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (§ 317.c).
uxor deinde ac līberī amplexī (Liv. 2.40)
then his wife and children embraced him.
Labor [m.] voluptās
que [f.] societāte quādam inter sē nātūrālī sunt iūncta [n.] (id.5.4)
Labor and delight are
bound together by a certain natural alliance.
Rēx rēgiaque classis ūnā profectī (Liv. 21.50)
The king and the royal fleet set out together.
Nātūrā inimīca sunt lībera cīvitās et rēx (id. 44.24)
By nature,
a free state and a king are hostile.
lēgātōs sortēsque ōrāculī exspectandās (id. 5.15)
that the ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be waited for.
a. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a predicate adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 289.c, below).
Stultitia et temeritās et iniūstitia ... sunt fugienda. (Fin. 3.39)
Folly, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
288. Adjectives are often used as nouns (substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things.
| omnēs all men (everybody) | omnia all things (everything) |
| mâiōrēs ancestors | minōrēs descendants |
| Rōmānī Romans | barbarī barbarians |
| līberta a freedwoman | Sabīnae the Sabine wives |
| sapiēns a sage (philosopher) | amīcus a friend |
| bonī the good (good people) | bona goods, property |
Note— The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (§ 289.a and c, below) and in words that have become practically nouns.
a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive.
tuus vīcīnus proximus
your next-door
neighbor
propinquī cēterī
his other
relatives
meus aequālis
a man of my own age
êius familiāris Catilīna (Har. Resp. 5)
his intimate friend Catiline
Leptae nostrī familiārissimus (Fam. 9.13.2)
a very close friend of our friend Lepta
b. When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added.
bonī the good
omnia everything (all things)
BUT
potentia omnium
rērum power over everything
c. Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association.
Āfricus [ventus] the southwest wind
Iānuārius [mēnsis] January
vitulīna [carō] veal (calf's flesh)
fera [bēstia] a wild beast
patria [terra] the fatherland
Gallia
[terra] Gaul (the land of the Gallī)
hīberna [castra] winter quarters
trirēmis[nāvis] a three-banked galley, trireme
argentārius [faber] a
silversmith
rēgia [domus] the
palace
Latīnae [fēriae] the
Latin festival
Note— These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in § 288. They include the names of winds and months (§ 31).
For nouns used as adjectives, see § 321.c.
For adverbs used like adjectives, see § 321.d.
289. Neuter adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses.
a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quality.
raptō vīvere
to live by plunder
in āridō
on dry ground
honestum
an honorable act or virtue (as a quality)
Opus est mātūrātō.
There is need of
haste. [Cf. Impersonal Passives § 208.d]
b. The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea.
honesta
honorable deeds (in general)
praeterita
the past (lit., bygones)
Omnēs fortia laudant.
All men praise
bravery (brave things)
c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. § 287. a, above).
Trīste lupus stabulīs. (Ecl. 3.80)
The
wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.
Varium et mūtābile semper fēmina. (Aen.
4.569)
Woman is ever a changing and fickle thing.
Malum mihi vidētur esse mors. (Tusc. 1.9)
Death seems to me to be an evil.
d. A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause.
istuc ipsum nōn esse (Tusc. 1.12)
that
very “not to be”
Hūmānum est errāre.
To err is
human.
Aliud est errāre Caesarem nōlle, aliud nōlle
miserērī. (Lig. 16)
It is one thing to be unwilling that Cæsar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an adverb.
Prīmus vēnit.
He was the first to
come (came first).
Nūllus dubitō.
I no way doubt.
Laetī audiēre.
They were glad to hear.
Erat Rōmae frequēns. (Rosc. Am. 16)
He
was often at Rome.
Sērus in caelum redeās. (Hor. Od. 1.2.45)
May you return late to heaven.
291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows.
a. The comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality.
brevior rather short
audācior too bold
b. The superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison.
mōns altissimus a very high mountain
Note— The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.
c. With quam, vel, or ūnus the superlative denotes the highest possible degree.
quam plūrimī
as many as possible
quam maximē potest (maximē quam potest)
as much as can be
vel minimus
the very least
vir ūnus doctissimus
the one most learned
man
Note 1— A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, valdē (very),or by per or prae in composition (§ 267.d.1).
valdē malus very bad = pessimus
permāgnus very great
praealtus very high (or deep)
Note 2— A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition.
subrūsticus rather clownish
or by minus (not very); minimē (not at all); parum (not enough); nōn satis (not much)
Note 3— The comparative mâiōrēs (for mâiōrēs nātū greater by birth) has the special signification of ancestors; so minōrēs often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see § 313.b. For the construction of a substantive after a Comparative, see §§ 406 - 407; for that of a clause, see § 535.c and § 571.a. For the Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (multō etc.), see § 414.
292.When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the Comparative.
longior quam lātior aciēs erat (Liv.
27.48)
the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).
vērior quam grātior (id. 22.38)
more true than agreeable
Note— So also with adverbs.
libentius quam vērius (Mil. 78)
with more freedom than truth
a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive.
disertus magis quam sapiēns (Att.
10.1.4)
eloquent rather than wise
clārī magis quam honestī (Iug. 8)
more renowned than honorable
Note— A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes connected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed.
clārīs mâiōribus quam vetustīs (Tac. Ann. 4.61)
of a family more famous than old
vehementius quam cautē (Tac. Agr. 4)
with more fury than good heed
293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succession—also vmedius, [vcēterus], vreliquus—usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant.
summus mōns
the top of the hill
in ultimā plateā
at the end of the
place
prior āctiō
the earlier part of an
action
reliquī captīvī
the rest of the
prisoners
in colle mediō (B. G. 1.24)
half way up
the hill (on the middle of the hill)
inter cēteram plānitiem (Iug. 92)
in a
region elsewhere level
Note— A similar use is found in sērā [multā] nocte (late at night), and the like. But medium viae (the middle of the way) multum diēī (much of the day) also occur.
294. A pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction (§ 228.2), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for nouns when the person or thing, being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not named.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives. Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows.
| Personal Pronouns (§ 295) | Possessive Pronouns (§ 302) |
| Demonstrative Pronouns (§ 296) | Relative Pronouns (§ 303) |
| Reflexive Pronouns (§ 299) | Indefinite Pronouns (§ 309) |
| Interrogative Pronouns (§ 333) | |
295. The personal pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns.
a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for distinction or emphasis.
Tē vocō
I call you.
BUT
Quis mē vocat? Ego tē
vocō.
Who is calling me? I am calling you.
b. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively (§ 346), and that in -ī oftenest objectively (§ 348).
mâior vestrum
the elder of you
Habētis ducem memorem vestrī, oblītum suī. (Cat. 4.19)
You have a leader who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum
a part (i.e. some)
of us
Note 1— The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (§ 348).
cupidus vestrum (Verr. 3.224)
fond of you
cūstōs vestrum (Cat. 3.29)
the guardian of you
(your guardian)
Note 2— One of themselves is expressed by ūnus ex suīs or ipsīs (rarely ex sē), or ūnus suōrum.
c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the 3rd person except the reflexive sē. This want is supplied by a demonstrative or relative (§ 296.2, § 308.f)
296. Demonstrative pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively.
hōc proeliō factō
after this battle
was fought (this battle having been fought)
eōdem proeliō
in the same
battle
ex eīs aedificiīs
out of those
buildings
Caesar et exercitus êius
Cæsar and
his army (not suus)
BUT
Caesar exercitum suum dīmīsit.
Cæsar disbanded his [own] army.]
sī obsidēs ab eīs dentur (B. G. 1.14)
if hostages should be given by them (persons just spoken of)
Hī sunt extrā prōvinciam trāns Rhodanum prīmī. (id. 1.10)
They (those just mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.
Ille minimum propter adulēscentiam poterat. (id. 1.20)
He had very little power, on account of his youth.
a. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf. § 306).
Hīc locus est ūnus quō perfugiant; hīc portus, haec arx,
haec āra sociōrum (Verr. 5.126)
This is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this is the haven, this the
citadel, this the altar of the allies.
Rērum caput hōc erat, hīc fōns (Hor. Ep.
1.17.45)
This was the head of things, this the source.
Eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhūc mortālis nēmō est
cōnsecūtus [for id . . . quod] (Lael. 18)
They explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.
297. The main uses of hīc, ille, iste, and is are the following.
a. Hīc is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the 1st person.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for “the latter” of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; more rarely for “the former,” when that, though more remote on the written page , is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often it refers to that which has just been mentioned.
b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.); and is hence called the demonstrative of the 3rd person. It is sometimes used to mean “the former”; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean “the following.”
c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness: often in allusion to the person addressed—hence called the demonstrative of the 2nd person. It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies antagonism or contempt.
d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative quī.
Vēnit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litterās abs tē reddidit. (Att. 2.1.1)
Your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
eum quem
one whom
eum cōnsulem quī nōn dubitet (Cat. 4.24)
a consul who will not hesitate
e.The pronouns hīc, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned.
f. The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea.
Est illud quidem vel maximum, animum vidēre. (Tusc. 1.52)
That is in truth a very great thing—to see the soul.
The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned.
Nūllam virtūs aliam mercēdem dēsīderat praeter hanc laudis. (Arch. 28)
Virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
Note— But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Commonly the Genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other construction is preferred.
Cum eī Simōnidēs artem memoriae pollicērētur: oblīviōnis, inquit,
māllem. (Fin. 2.104)
When Simonides promised him the art of memory, “I should prefer,” he said, “[that] of
forgetfulness.”
Caesaris exercitus Pompêiānōs ad Pharsālum vīcit.
The army of Cæsar defeated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.
298. The main uses of īdem and ipse are as follows.
a. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or īdem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that person or thing.
per ūnu servum et eum ex gladiātōriō lūdō (Att. 1.16.5)
by means of a single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school
vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. 4.7)
imprisonment, and that perpetual
Ti. Gracchus rēgnum occupāre cōnātus est, vel rēgnāvit is quidem paucōs mēnsīs. (Lael.
41)
Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or rather he actually reigned a few months.
Note— So rarely with ille.
nunc dextrā ingemināns ictūs, nunc ille sinistrā (Aen.
5.457)
now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his
left
In imitation of the Homeric ὅ γε: cf. Aen. 5.334; 9.796.]
b. Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time).
ōrātiō splendida et grandis et eadem in prīmīs facēta (Brut.
273)
an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too
Cum [haec] dīcat, negat īdem esse in Deō grātiam. (N. D. 1.121)
When he says
this, he denies also that there is mercy with God. (he, the same man)
Note— This is really the same use as in a. above, but in this case the pronoun cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.
c. The intensive ipse (self) is used with any of the other pronouns, with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis.
Turpe mihi ipsī vidēbātur (Phil. 1.9)
Even to me (to me myself) it seemed disgraceful.
id ipsum
that very thing
quod ipsum
which of itself alone
in eum ipsum locum
to that very
place
tum ipsum (Off. 2.60)
at that very time.
Note 1— The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc.
Note 2— In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself). In Latin the former would be translated by ipse, the latter by sē or sēsē.
d. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows.
idque reī pūblicae praeclārum, ipsīs glōriōsum (Phil. 2.27)
and this was splendid for the state, glorious for themselves
omnēs bonī quantum in ipsīs fuit (id. 2.29)
all good men so far
as was in their power (in themselves)
Dī capitī ipsīus generīque reservent (Aen. 8.484)
May the gods
hold in reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.
vōbīscum ipsī recordāminī (Phil. 2.1)
remember in your own minds (yourselves with yourselves)
Ipse dīxit (cf. αὐτὸς
ἔφα)
He (the Master) said it.
Nōmentānus erat super ipsum. (Hor. S. 2.8.23)
Nomentanus was
above [the host] himself [at table].
e. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see § 300.b).
f. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate.
Mē ipse cōnsōlor. (Lael. 10)
I console
myself. [Not mē ipsum, as the English would lead us to expect.]
299. The reflexive pronoun (sē), and usually its corresponding possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause.
Sē ex nāvī prōiēcit. (B. G. 4.25)
He
threw himself from the ship.
Dumnorīgem ad sē vocat. (id. 1.20)
He
calls Dumnorix to him.
Sēsē castrīs tenēbant. (id. 3.24)
They kept themselves in camp.
Contemnī sē putant. (Cat. M. 65)
They
think they are despised.
Caesar suās cōpiās subdūcit. (B. G. 1.22)
Cæsar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi Rhēnum esse trānseundum. (id. 4.16)
Cæsar decided that he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
a. For reflexives of the 1st and 2nd persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns (meī, tuī, etc.) and the corresponding possessives (meus, tuus, etc.) are used.
Mortī mē obtulī. (Mil. 94)
I have exposed
myself to death.
Hinc tē rēgīnae ad līmina perfer. (Aen. 1.389)
Do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold.
Quid est quod tantīs nōs in labōribus exerceāmus? (Arch. 28)
What reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils?
Singulīs vōbīs novēnōs ex turmīs manipulīsque vestrī
similēs ēligite. (Liv. 21.54)
For each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine like yourselves.
300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a double use of reflexives.
Iūdicārī potest quantum habeat in sē bonī cōnstantia. (B. G. 1.40)
It can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
[Caesar] nōluit eum locum vacāre, nē Germānī ē suīs fīnibus trānsīrent. (id. 1.28)
Cæsar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from
their territories.
sī qua sīgnificātiō virtūtis ēlūceat ad quam sē similis animus adplicet et adiungat
(Lael. 48)
if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar disposition may attach itself
Petiērunt ut sibi licēret. (B. G. 1.30)
They begged that it might be allowed them (the petitioners).
Iccius nūntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittātur, etc. (id. 2.6)
Iccius sends a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.
Decima legiō eī grātiās ēgit, quod dē sē optimum iūdicium fēcisset. (id. 1.41)
The tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high opinion of them.
sī obsidēs ab eīs (the Helvetians) sibi (Cæsar, who is the speaker) dentur, sē (Cæsar) cum eīs pācem esse factūrum (id.
1.14)
[Cæsar said that] if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them
Note— Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse.
cum ipsī deō nihil minus grātum futūrum sit quam nōn omnibus patēre ad
sē plācandum viam (Legg. 2.25)
since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than that the way to appease him
should not be open to all men
a.If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found.
Sunt ita multī ut eōs carcer capere nōn possit. (Cat. 2.22)
They are so many that the prison cannot hold them.
[Here sē could not be used; so also in the example following.]
Ibi in proximīs vīllīs ita bipartītō fuērunt, ut Tiberis inter eōs et pōns interesset. (id.
3.5)
There they stationed themselves in the nearest farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge were between them (the divisions).
Nōn fuit eō contentus quod eī praeter spem acciderat. (Manil. 25)
He was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare:
Quī fit, Maecēnās, ut nēmō, quam sibi sortem seu ratiō dederit seu fors obiēcerit, illā
contentus vīvat? (Hor. S. 1.1.1)
How comes it, Mæcenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has assigned him or chance has thrown in his way?
[Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
b. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive.
cūr dē suā virtūte aut dē ipsīus dīligentiā dēspērārent (B. G. 1.40)
why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence
omnia aut ipsōs aut hostēs populātōs (Q. C. 3.5.6)
[they said that] either they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste [Direct reflexive]
Quī sē ex hīs minus timidōs exīstimārī volēbant, nōn sē hostem verērī, sed angustiās itineris et
māgnitūdinem silvārum quae intercēderent inter ipsōs (the persons referred to by sē above)
atque Ariovistum . . . timēre dīcēbant. (B. G. 1.39)
Those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did
not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.
Audīstis nūper dīcere lēgātōs Tyndaritānōs Mercurium quī sacrīs anniversāriīs apud eōs colerētur esse
sublātum. (Verr. 4.84)
You have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshiped with annual rites among them was taken
away.
[Here Cicero wavers between apud eōs colēbātur, a remark of his own, and apud sē
colerētur, the words of the ambassadors. eōs does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the people—the Tyndaritani.]
301. The following are special uses of the reflexive.
a. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause.
Paetus omnīs librōs quōs frāter suus relīquisset mihi dōnāvit. (Att. 2.1)
Pœtus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) his brother had left him.
b. The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse.
Sōcratem cīvēs suī interfēcērunt.
Socrates was put to death by his own fellow citizens.
Quī poterat salūs sua cuiquam nōn probārī? (Mil. 81)
How can any one fail to approve his own safety?
[In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]
hunc sī secūtī erunt suī comitēs (Cat. 2.10)
this man, if his companions follow him
Note— Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed.
Studeō sānāre sibi ipsōs. (Cat. 2.17)
I am anxious to cure these men for their own benefit. (i.e. ut sānī sibi sint)
c. Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in it.
suīs flammīs dēlēte Fīdēnās (Liv. 4.33)
destroy Fidenœ with its own fires
(the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. 1.32.]
d. The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective.
suī laus self-praise
Habētis ducem memorem vestrī, oblītum suī. (Cat. 4.19)
You have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perditī hominēs cum suī similibus servīs (Phil. 1.5)
abandoned men with slaves like themselves
e. The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely.
Contentum suīs rēbus esse maximae sunt dīvitiae. (Par. 51)
The greatest wealth is to be content with one's own.
cui prōposita sit cōnservātiō suī (Fin. 5.37)
one whose aim is self-preservation
f. Inter sē (nōs, vōs) among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is regularly used to express reciprocal action or relation.
inter sē cōnflīgunt (Cat. 1.25)
contend
with each other
inter sē continentur (Arch. 2)
are joined
to each other
302. The possessive pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of the possessor.
Haec ōrnāmenta sunt mea. (Val. 4.4)
These
are my jewels.
[mea is neuter plural, though the speaker is a woman.]
Meī sunt ōrdinēs, mea dīscrīptiō. (Cat. M.
59)
Mine are the rows, mine the arrangement.
[mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]
multa in nostrō collēgiō praeclāra (id. 64)
[There are] many fine things in our college
[nostrō is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]
Germānī suās cōpiās castrīs ēdūxērunt. (B. G. 1.51)
The Germans led their troops out of the camp.
a. To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pronouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (§ 343.a).
domus mea my house
[Not
domus meī]
pater noster our
father
[Not pater nostrī]
patrimōnium tuum your
inheritance
[Not tuī]
Note 1— Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see § 348.a.
Note 2— The Interrogative Possessive cûius, -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early Latin.
cûium pecus (Ecl. 3.1)
whose flock?
The genitive cûius is generally used instead.
b. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of.
[petere] ut suā clēmentiā ac
mānsuētūdine ūtātur (B. G. 2.14)
they asked (they said) that he would show his [accustomed] clemency and humanity.
Īgnōrantī quem portum petat nūllus suus ventus est. (Sen. Ep. 71.3)
To him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).
Tempore tuō pūgnāstī?
Did you fight at a
fit time?
Note— This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possessive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally.
c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when they are plainly implied in the context.
Socium fraudāvit.
He cheated his partner.
[socium suum would be distinctive, his partner (and not another's); suum socium would be emphatic, his own partner.]
d. Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation.
nostrī
our countrymen, or men of
our party
Suōs continēbat. (B. G. 1.15)
He held his
men in check.
flamma extrēma meōrum (Aen. 2.431)
last
flames of my countrymen
Sullānī
the veterans of Sulla's army
Pompêiānī
the partisans of Pompey
Note— There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see § 288).
e. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun.
meā sōlīus causā (Ter. Heaut. 129)
for my
sake only
in nostrō omnium flētū (Mil. 92)
amid the
tears of us all
ex Anniānā Milōnis domō (Att. 4.3.3)
out
of Annius Milo's house.
[Equivalent to ex Annī Milōnis domō]
nostra omnium patria
the country of us
all
suum ipsīus rēgnum
his own kingdom
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see §§ 299, 300.
303. A relative pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest construction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers.
Iter in ea loca facere coepit quibus in locīs esse Germānōs
audiēbat. (B. G. 4.7)
He began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans
were.
But one of these nouns is commonly omitted.
The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time:
eī quī Alesiae obsīdēbantur (B. G. 7.77)
those who were besieged at Alesia
T. Balventius, quī superiōre annō prīmum pīlum dūxerat (id. 5.35)
Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction.
quae cum ita sint (= et cum ea ita sint)
[and] since this is so
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinating and the later connective force were acquired by quī at such an early period that the steps of the process cannot now be traced.
304. A relative pronoun indicates a relation between its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the antecedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence—
Eum nihil dēlectābat quod fās
esset. (Mil. 43)
Nothing pleased him which was right.
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fās esset, indicating a relation between the two.
305. A relative agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; but, its case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands.
Ea diēs quam cōnstituerat vēnit. (B. G. 1.8)
That day which he had appointed came.
Pontem quī erat ad Genāvam iubet rescindī. (id. 1.7)
He orders the bridge which was near Geneva to be cut down.
Aduatucī, dē quibus suprā dīximus, domum revertērunt. (id. 2.29)
The Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.
Note— This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: as, quālis, quantus, quīcumque, etc.
a. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ 286 - 287).
Fīlium et fīliam, quōs valdē dīlēxit, unō tempore āmīsit.
He lost at the same time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
grandēs nātū mātrēs et parvulī līberī, quōrum utrōrumque aetās misericor, diam nostram
requīrit (Verr. 5.129)
aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion
ōtium atque dīvitiae, quae prīma mortālēs putant (Sall. Cat. 36)
idleness and wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire)
eae frūgēs et frūctūs quōs terra gignit (N. D. 2.37)
those fruits and crops which the earth produces
For the person of the verb agreeing with the relative, see § 316.a.
306. A relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. § 296.a).
mare etiam quem Neptūnum esse dīcēbās (N. D. 3.52)
the sea, too, which you said was Neptune
[Not quod]
Thēbae ipsae, quod Boeōtiae caput est (Liv. 42.44)
even Thebes, which is the chief city of Bœotia.
[Not quae]
Note— This rule is occasionally violated.
flūmen quod appellātur Tamesis (B. G. 5.11)
a river which is called the Thames
a. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by attraction).
sī aliquid agā eōrum quōrum cōnsuēstī (Fam. 5.14)
if you should do something of what you are used to do
[For eōrum quae]
Note— Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative.
Urbem quam statuō vestra est. (Aen. 1.573)
The city which I am founding is yours.
Naucratem, quem convenīre voluī, in nāvī nōn erat. (Pl. Am.
1009)
Naucrates, whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.
b. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent.
quārtum genus . . . quī in vetere aere aliēnō vacillant (Cat. 2.21)
a fourth class, who are staggering under old debts
ūnus ex eō numerō quī parātī erant (Iug. 35)
one of the number [of those] who were ready
coniūrāvēre paucī, dē quā [i.e. coniūrātiōne] dīcam (Sall. Cat. 18)
a few have conspired, of
which [conspiracy] I will speak
Note— So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun.
nostra ācta, quōs tyrannōs vocās (Vat. 29)
the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants
[Here quōs agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
307. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses, but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is wholly omitted.
a. The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause.
Locī nātūra erat haec quem locum nostrī dēlēgerant. (B. G. 2.18)
The nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
b. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative in case.
Quās rēs in cōnsulātū nostrō gessimus attigit hīc versibus. (Arch. 28)
He has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.
Quae prīma innocentis mihi dēfēnsiō est oblāta suscēpī. (Sull. 92)
I undertook the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.
Note— In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. § 308.d below) and a demonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause.
Quae pars cīvitātis calamitātem populō Rōmānō intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit. (B. G. 1.12)
That part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first
to pay the penalty.
Quae grātia currum fuit vīvīs, eadem sequitur. (Aen. 6.653)
The same pleasure that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after
death).
quī fit ut nēmō, quam sibi sortem ratiō dederit, illā contentus vīvat? (cf. Hor. S. 1.1.1)
How does it
happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice has assigned him?
c. The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite.
quī decimae legiōnis aquilam ferēbat (B. G. 4.25)
[the man] who bore the eagle of the
tenth legion
Quī cōgnōscerent mīsit. (id. 1.21)
He sent [men] to reconnoitre.
d. The phrase id quod or quae rēs may be used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea.
[obtrectātum est] Gabīniō dīcam anne Pompêiō? an utrīque— id quod est vērius? (Manil. 57)
An affront has been offered—shall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey? or—which is truer—to
both?
Multum sunt in vēnātiōnibus, quae rēs vīrēs alit. (B. G. 4.1)
They spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.
Note— But quod alone often occurs.
Cassius noster, quod mihi māgnae voluptātī fuit, hostem
rêiēcerat. (Fam. 2.10)
Our friend Cassius—which was a great satisfaction to me—had driven back the enemy.
e. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause.
fīrmī [amīcī], cûius generis est māgna pēnūria (Lael. 62)
steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).
f. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause.
vāsa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum vīderat (Verr. 4.63)
those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house
[Nearly equivalent to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]
Special Uses of the Relative
308. In the use of relatives, the following points are to be observed.
a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English.
liber quem mihi dedistī
the book you gave
me
Is sum quī semper fuī.
I am the same man
I always was.
Eō in locō est dē quō tibi locūtus sum.
He is in the place I told you of.
b. When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative conjunction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrative in the last.
Erat profectus obviam legiōnibus Macedonicīs quattuor, quās sibi conciliāre pecūniā cōgitābat eāsque ad urbem addūcere. (Fam. 12.23.2)
He had set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over to
himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.
c. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English,—particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency.
lēgēs quae nunc sunt
the existing laws (the laws which now exist)
Caesar quī Galliam vīcit
Cæsar the conqueror of Gaul
iūsta glōria quī est frūctus virtūtis (Pison. 57)
true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue
ille quī petit
the plaintiff (he
who sues)
quī legit
a reader (one who
reads)
d. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. § 307.b above).
Quae pars cīvitātis Helvētiae īnsīgnem calamitātem populō Rōmānō intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit. (B. G. 1.12)
The portion of the Helvetian state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman
people was the first to pay the penalty.
Note— In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause.
Ille quī cōnsultē cavet, diūtinē ūtī bene licet partum bene.
(Plaut. Rud. 1240)
He who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.
e. The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such.
quae vestra prūdentia est(Cael. 45)
such is your wisdom
[Equivalent to
prō vestrā prūdentiā]
Audīssēs cōmoedōs vel lēctōrem vel lyristēn, vel, quae mea līberālitās, omnēs. (Plin. Ep.
1.15)
You would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a lyre-player, or—such is my liberality—to all of them.
f. A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the sentence or clause that precedes.
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convēnit, etc. (B. G. 3.14)
Cæsar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come together, etc.
quae quī audiēbant
and those who heard
this (which things)
quae cum ita sint
and since this is
so
quōrum quod simile factum (Cat. 4.13)
what deed of theirs like this?
quō cum vēnisset
and when he had come
there (whither when he had come)
Note— This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrogative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, with or without and.
g. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun.
mortuus Cūmīs quō sē contulerat (Liv. 2.21)
having died at Cumœ, whither he had retired
[Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quās.]
locus quō aditus nōn erat
a place to
which (whither) there was no access
rēgna unde genus dūcis (Aen. 5.801)
the
kingdom from which you derive your race
unde petitur
the defendant (he
from whom something is demanded)
h. The relatives quī, quālis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered simply by as in English.
idem quod semper
the same as
always
cum esset tālis quālem tē esse videō (Mur. 32)
since he was such a man as I see you are
tanta dīmicātiō quanta numquam fuit (Att. 7.1.2)
such a fight as never was before
tot mala quot sīdera (Ov. Tr. 1.5.47)
as
many troubles as stars in the sky
i. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses introduced by relative adverbs: as, ubi, quō, unde, cum, quārē.
309. The indefinite pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one.
310. Quis, quispiam, aliquis, quīdam, are particular indefinites, meaning some, a certain, any. Of these, quis (any one) is least definite, and quīdam (a certain one) most definite; aliquis and quispiam (some one) stand between the two.
dīxerit quis (quispiam)
some one may say
aliquī philosophī ita putant
some
philosophers think so
[quīdam would mean certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not
named.]
habitant hīc quaedam mulierēs pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647)
some poor women live here
[i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be
aliquae or nesciō quae].
a. The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations sī quis (if any), nisi quis (if any . . . not), nē quis (lest any, in order that none), num quis (ecquis whether any) and in relative clauses.
b. The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of quis after sī, nisi, nē, and num, and are rather more emphatic.
Quid sī hōc quispiam voluit deus? (Ter. Eun. 875)
What if some god had desired this?
nisi alicui suōrum negōtium daret (Nep. Dion. 8.2)
unless he should employ some one of his friends
Cavēbat Pompêius omnia, nē aliquid vōs timērētis. (Mil. 66)
Pompey took every precaution, so that you might have no fear.
311. In a particular negative aliquis and aliquī (some one, some), are regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam (any one) or ūllus (any) would be required.
Iūstitia numquam nocet cuiquam. (Fin. 1.50)
Justice never does harm to anybody.
[alicui would mean to somebody who possesses
it.]
nōn sine aliquō metū
not without some
fear
BUT
sine ūllō
metū
without any fear
cum aliquid nōn habeās (Tusc. 1.88)
when
there is something you do not have
Note— The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and quisquam (ūllus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is expressed or suggested.
Sī quisquam, ille sapiēns fuit. (Lael. 9)
If any man was (ever) a sage, he was.
dum praesidia ūlla fuērunt (Rosc. Am. 126)
while there were any armed forces
sī quid in tē peccāvī (Att. 3.15.4)
if I have done wrong towards you
[in any particular case, see § 310, above]
312. Quīvīs or quīlibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the corresponding adjective ūllus (any at all) are general indefinites. Quīvīs and quīlibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and ūllus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or suggested.
Nōn cuivīs hominī contingit adīre Corinthum. (Hor. Ep. 1.17.36)
It is not every man's luck to go to Corinth.
[nōn cuiquam would mean not any
man's.]
quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad.
2.132)
anybody you will, provided it be somebody
Sī quisquam est timidus, is ego sum. (Fam. 6.14.1)
If any man is timorous, I am he.
sī tempus est ūllum iūre hominis necandī (Mil. 9)
if there is any occasion whatever when homicide is justifiable
Note— The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
313. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and ūnus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions.
Bonus liber melior est quisque quō mâior. (Plin. Ep. 1.20.4)
The larger a good book is, the better. (each good book is better in proportion, etc.)
Ambō exercitūs suās quisque abeunt domōs. (Liv. 2.7.1)
Both armies go away, every man to his home.
Uterque utrīque erat exercitus in cōnspectū. (B. G. 7.35)
Each army was in sight of the other. (each to each)
Pōnite ante oculōs ūnum quemque rēgum. (Par. 1.11)
Set before your eyes each of the kings.
a. Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one.
Quō quisque est sollertior, hōc docet īrācundius (Rosc. Com. 31)
The keener witted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.
Note— Quisque is generally postpositive.1
suum cuique
to every man his own
b. Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal numerals.
nōbilissimus quisque
all the
noblest (one after the other in the order of their nobility)2
prīmō quōque tempore (Rosc. Am. 36)
at
the very first opportunity
antīquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. 1.45)
the most ancient times
decimus quisque (id. 5.52)
one in
ten
Note 1— Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion
Sapientissimus quisque aequissimō animō moritur. (Cat. M. 83)
The wisest men die with the greatest equanimity.
Note 2— Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a disparaging sense (how few).
Quotus enim quisque
disertus? Quotus quisque iūris perītus est? (Planc. 62)
For how few
are eloquent! How few are learned in the law!
Quotus enim istud quisque
fēcisset? (Lig. 26)
For how many would have done this?
[i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it]
314. Nēmō (no one) is used of persons only:
Nēminem accūsat.
He accuses no
one.
vir nēmō bonus (Legg. 2.41)
no good
man
Note— Even when used as a substantive, nēmō may take a noun in apposition
nēmō scrīptor
nobody [who is] a writer
a. Nūllus (no) is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nēmō, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a substantive.
Nūllum mittitur tēlum (B. C. 2.13)
Not a
missile is thrown.
nūllō hoste prohibente (B. G. 3.6)
without opposition from the enemy
Nūllīus īnsector calamitātem. (Phil. 2.98)
I persecute the misfortune of no one.
nūllō adiuvante (id. 10.4)
with the help
of no one (no one helping)
Nūllī erant praedōnēs. (Flacc. 28)
There
were no pirates.
Nūllī eximentur (Pison. 94)
None shall be
taken away.
For nōn nēmō, nōn nūllus (nōn nūllī), see § 326.a.
315. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); alter the other (of two), often the second in a series; cēterī and reliquī all the rest, the others; alteruter one of the two.
proptereā quod aliud iter habērent nūllum (B. G. 1.7)
because (as they said) they had no other way
Ūnī epistulae respondī, veniō ad alteram
(Fam. 2.17.6)
One letter I have answered, I come to the other.
alterum genus (Cat. 2.19)
the second
class
Iēcissem ipse mē potius in profundum ut cēterōs cōnservārem. (Sest. 45)
I should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.
Servīlius cōnsul, reliquīque magistrātūs (B. C. 3.21)
Servilius the consul and the rest of the magistrates
cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. 6.3)
since it must be that one of the two should prevail
Note— Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly.
dum nē sit tē dītior alter (Hor. S. 1.1.40)
so long as another is not richer than you
(lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered)
nōn ut magis alter, amīcus (id. 1.5.33)
a friend such that no other is more so
a. The expressions alter . . . alter (the one ... the other) and alius . . . alius (one ... another) may be used in pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity of action.
Alterī dīmicant, alterī victōrem timent.
(Fam. 6.3)
One party fights, the other fears the victor.
Alteram alterī praesidiō esse iusserat. (B. C. 3.89)
He had ordered each (of the two legions) to support the other.
Aliī gladiīs adoriuntur, aliī fragmentīs
saeptōrum. (Sest. 79)
Some make an attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.
Alius ex aliō causam quaerit. (B. G.
6.37)
They ask each other the reason.
Alius alium percontāmur. (Pl. Stich. 370)
We keep asking each other.
b. Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another (the other) of the objects referred to.
alter cōnsulum
one of the [two] consuls
Aliud est maledīcere, aliud accūsāre.
(Cael. 6)
It is one thing to slander, another to accuse.
c. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses briefly a double statement.
Alius aliud petit.
One man seeks one
thing, another another (another seeks another thing).
Iussit aliōs alibī fodere. (Liv. 44.33)
He ordered different persons to dig in different places.
Aliī aliō locō resistēbant. (B. C. 2.39)
Some halted in one place, some in another.
316. A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person.
Ego statuō.
I resolve.
Senātus dēcrēvit.
The senate ordered.
Silent lēgēs inter arma. (Mil. 11)
The laws are silent in time of war.
Note— In verb forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number (§ 286).
Ōrātiō est habita.
The plea was delivered.
Bellum exortum est.
A war arose.
a. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent.
Adsum quī fēcī. (Aen. 9.427)
Here am I
who did it.
Tū, quī scīs, omnem dīligentiam adhibēbis. (Att. 5.2.3)
You, who know, will use all diligence.
Vidēte quam dēspiciāmur omnēs quī sumus ē mūnicipiīs. (Phil. 3.15)
See how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.
b. A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verb form in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun.
Amantium īrae amōris integrātiō est. (Ter. And. 555)
The quarrels of lovers are the renewal of love.
Nōn omnis error stultitia dīcenda est. (Div. 2.90)
Not every error should be called folly.
Corinthus lūmen Graeciae exstīnctum est. (cf. Manil. 11)
Corinth, the light of Greece, is put out.
Double or Collective Subject
317. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the plural.
Pater et avus mortuī sunt.
His father and
grandfather are dead.
Note— So rarely (by synesis, § 280.a) when an Ablative with cum is attached to a singular subject.
Dux cum aliquot prīncipibus capiuntur. (Liv. 21.60)
The general and several leading men are taken.
a. When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in the 1st person rather than the 2nd, and in the 2nd rather than the 3rd.
Sī tū et Tullia valētis ego et Cicerō valēmus (Fam. 14.5)
If you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.
[Notice that the 1st person is also first
in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
Note— In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for predicate adjectives (see § 287.2-4).
b. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (§ 223.a), or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular.
Quem neque fidēs neque iūs iūrandum neque illum misericordia repressit. (Ter. Ad. 306)
Not faith, nor oath, nay,
nor mercy, checked him.
Senātus populusque Rōmānus intellegit. (Fam. 5.8)
The Roman senate and people understand.
BUT
Neque Caesar neque ego habitī essēmus. (id. 11.20)
Neither Cæsar nor I should have been considered.
Fāma et vīta innocentis dēfenditur. (Rosc. Am. 15)
The reputation and life of an innocent man are defended.
Est in eō virtūs et probitās et summum officium summaque observantia. (Fam. 13.28 A.
2)
In him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense of duty, and the greatest devotion.
Note— So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.
c. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often agrees with one and is understood with the others.
Intercēdit M. Antōnius Q. Cassius tribūnī plēbis. (B. C. 1.2)
Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
Hōc mihi et Peripatēticī et vetus Acadēmia concēdit. (Acad. 2.113)
This both the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.
d. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular; but the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are thought of (§ 280.a).
Ad hīberna exercitus redit. (Liv. 21.22)
The army returns to
winter-quarters.
Plēbēs ā patribus sēcessit. (Sall. Cat. 33)
The plebs seceded
from the patricians.
cum tanta multitūdō lapidēs conicerent (B. G. 2.6)
when such a crowd were throwing stones
Note 1— The point of view may change in the course of a sentence.
Equitātum omnem . . . quem habēbat praemittit, quī videant. (B. G. 1.15)
He sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).
Note 2— The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes used collectively to denote a group.
Poenus the Carthaginians
mīles the soldiery
eques the cavalry
e. Quisque (each) and ūnus quisque every single one, have very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. § 282.a).
Sibi quisque habeant quod suum est. (Pl. Curc. 180)
Let every one keep his own.
(Let them keep every man his own.)
Note— So also uterque each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius . . . alium alter . . . alterum (§ 315.a).
Omission of Subject or Verb
318. The subject of the verb is sometimes omitted.
a. A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic.
Loquor.
I speak.
BUT
Ego loquor.
It is I that speak.
b. An indefinite subject is often omitted.
Crēderēs.
You would have supposed.
Putāmus.
We (people) think.
Dīcunt. (Ferunt, Perhibent)
They say.
c. A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject expressed or understood (§ 208.d).
Diū atque ācriter pūgnātum est. (B. G. 1.26)
They fought long and vigorously.
319. The verb is sometimes omitted.
a. Dīcō, faciō, agō, and other common verbs are often omitted in familiar phrases.
Quōrsum haec [spectant]?
What does this aim at?
Ex ungue leōnem [cōgnōscēs].
You will know a lion by his claw.
Quid multa?
What need of many words?
(Why should I say much?)
Quid? quod . . . ?
What of this? That . . . ?
(What shall I say of this, that ... ?)
[A form of transition]
Aeolus haec contrā (Aen. 1.76)
Æolus thus [spoke] in reply
Tum Cotta [inquit] . . .
Then Cotta [said] . . .
Dī meliōra [duint]! (Cat. M. 47)
Heaven forfend!
(May the gods grant better things!)
Unde [venīs] et quō [tendis]? (Hor. S. 2.4.1)
Where from and whither
bound?
[Cf. id. 1.9.62 for the full form.]
b. The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indicative and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the subjunctive.
tū coniūnx (Aen. 4.113)
you [are] his wife
Quid ergō? Audācissimus ego ex omnibus (Rosc. Am. 2)
What then? Am I the boldest of
all?
Omnia praeclāra rāra (Lael. 79)
All the best things are rare.
Potest incidere saepe contentiō et comparātiō dē duōbus honestīs utrum honestius. (Off. 1.152)
There may often occur a comparison of two honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable.
[Here, if any copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.]
Accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. 6.136)
Hear what is first to be
accomplished.
[Direct: Quae peragenda prius?]
320. The proper function of adverbs, as petrified case forms, is to modify verbs.
celeriter īre
to go with speed
It is from this use that they derive their name [adverbium, from ad (to), and verbum (verb); see § 241.b). They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested.
splendidē mendāx
gloriously false
More rarely they modify other adverbs.
nimis graviter
too severely
Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see § 20.g, Note).1
321. Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
a. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the corresponding pronoun with a preposition (see § 308.g).
Eō [= in ea] impōnit vāsa. (Iug. 75)
Upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp
utensils.
eō mīlitēs impōnere (B. G. 1.42)
to put soldiers upon them (the horses)
apud eōs quō [= ad quōs] sē contulit (Verr. 4.38)
among those to whom (whither) he resorted
quī eum necāsset unde [= quō] ipse nātus esset (Rosc. Am. 71)
one who should have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth)
Ō condiciōnēs miserās administrandārum prōvinciārum ubi [= in
quibus] sevēritās perīculōsa est. (Flacc. 87)
O! wretched terms of managing the provinces, where
strictness is dangerous.
b. The participles dictum and factum (and occasionally other perfect participles), when used as nouns, are regularly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives.
praeclārē facta (Nep. Timoth. 1)
glorious deeds (things gloriously done)
multa facētē dicta (Off. 1.104)
many witty sayings
c. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modified by an adverb.
victor exercitus
the victorious army
admodum puer
quite a boy (young)
magis vir
more of a man (more manly)
populum lātē rēgem (Aen. 1.21)
a people ruling far and wide
Note— Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force but which contain a verbal idea.
hinc abitiō (Plaut. Rud. 503)
a going away from
here
quid cōgitem dē obviarr itiōne (Att. 13.50)
what I think
about going to meet (him)
[Perhaps felt as a compound.]
d. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are obviam, palam, sometimes contrā, and occasionally others.
Fit obviam Clōdiō (Mil. 29)
He falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius.
[Cf. the adjective obvius: sī ille obvius eī
futūrus nōn erat (id. 47)
if he was not likely to fall in with him]
Haec commemorō quae sunt palam. (Pison. 11)
I mention these facts, which are
well-known.
Alia probābilia, contrā alia dīcimus (Off. 2.7)
We call some things probable, others the
opposite (not probable).
[In this use, contrā contradicts a previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]
erī semper lēnitās (Ter. And. 175)
my master's constant (always) gentleness
[An imitation of a Greek construction.]
Note— In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in c above).
For propius, prīdiē, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see § 432.
322. The following adverbs require special notice.
a. Etiam (et iam; also, even) is stronger than quoque (also) and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it.
nōn verbīs sōlum sed etiam vī (Verr. 2.64)
not only by words, but also by force
hōc quoque maleficium (Rosc. Am. 117)
this crime too
b. Nunc2 means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is rarely used of the immediate past. Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With negatives iam means (no) longer. Tum (then) is correlative to cum (when) and may be used of any time. Tunc (then, at that time) is a strengthened form of tum (†tum-ce, cf. nunc).
ut iam anteā dīxī
as I have already said before
sī iam satis aetātis atque rōboris habēret (Rosc. Am. 149)
if he had attained a suitable
age and strength
(lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by)
nōn est iam lēnitātī locus
there is no longer room for mercy
quod iam erat īnstitūtum
which had come to be a practice (had now been established)
Nunc quidem dēlēta est, tunc flōrēbat. (Lael. 13)
Now (it's true) she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory.
tum cum rēgnābat
at the time when he reigned
c. Certō means certainly, certē (usually) at least, at any rate.
Certō sciō
I know for a certainty.
ego certē
I at least
d. Prīmum means first (first in order, or for the first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Prīmō means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time.
hōc prīmum sentiō
this I hold in the first place
Aedīs prīmō ruere rēbāmur
At first, we thought the house was falling.
Note— In enumerations, prīmum [or prīmō] is often followed by deinde (secondly, in the next place), or by tum (then), or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by dēnique or postrēmō (lastly, finally).
prīmum dē genere bellī, deinde dē māgnitūdine, tum dē imperātōre dēligendō (Manil. 6)
first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander
e. Quidem (indeed) gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.
Hōc quidem vidēre licet. (Lael. 54)
This, surely, one may see. [Emphatic]
[Sēcūritās] speciē quidem blanda, sed reāpse multīs locīs
repudianda. (id. 47)
(Tranquillity) attractive in appearance, it's
true, but in reality to be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive]
f. Nē . . . quidem means not even or not ... either. The emphatic word or words must stand between nē and quidem.
Sed nē Iugurtha quidem quiētus erat. (Iug. 51)
But, Jugurtha was not quiet either.
Ego autem nē īrāscī possum quidem iīs quōs valdē amō. (Att. 2.19.1)
But I cannot even get
angry with those whom I love very much.
Note— Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the 1st person.
Equidem adprobābō (Fam. 2.3.2)
I for my part shall
approve.
2. For †num-ce; cf. tunc (for †tum-ce).
323. Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them.
scrīptum senātuī et populō (Cat. 3.10)
written to the senate and people
ut eās [partīs] sānārēs et cōnfīrmārēs (Mil. 68)
that you might cure and strengthen those parts
neque meā prūdentiā neque hūmānīs cōnsiliīs frētus (Cat. 2.29)
relying neither on my own
foresight nor on human wisdom
a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also commonly connect similar constructions.
Hīs igitur quam physicīs potius crēdendum exīstimās? (Div. 2.37)
Do you think these are
more to be trusted than the natural philosophers?
Hominem callidiōrem vīdī nēminem quam Phormiōnem. (Ter. Ph. 591)
A shrewder man I never
saw than Phormio. (cf. § 407)
Ut nōn omne vīnum sīc nōn omnis nātūra vetustāte coacēscit. (Cat. M. 65)
As every wine
does not sour with age, so not every nature [does].
in mē quasi in tyrannum (Phil. 14.15)
against me as against a tyrant
b. Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, § 601.c).
omnēs dī, hominēs
all gods and men
summī, mediī, īnfimī
the highest, the middle class, and the lowest
Iūra, lēgēs, agrōs, lībertātem nōbīs relīquērunt. (B. G. 7.77)
They have left us our
rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.
c. 1. Where there are more than two coordinate words etc., a conjunction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first).
aut aere aliēnō aut māgnitūdine tribūtōrum aut iniūriā potentiōrum (B. G. 6.13)
by debt,
excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the powerful
At sunt mōrōsī et anxiī et īrācundī et difficilēs senēs. (Cat. M. 65)
But, (you
say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it).
propudium illud et portentum, L. Antōnius īnsīgne odium omnium hominum (Phil. 14.8)
that
wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomination of all men
Utrumque ēgit gravite, auctōritāte et offēnsiōne animī nōn acerbā. (Lael. 77)
He acted in
both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and with no bitterness of feeling.
3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a series, even when there is no grouping apparent.
vōce voltū mōtūque (Brut. 110)
by voice, expression, and gesture
cūram cōnsilium vigilantiamque (Phil. 7.20)
care, wisdom, and vigilance.
quōrum auctōritātem dīgnitātem voluntātemque dēfenderās (Fam. 1.7.2)
whose dignity, honor,
and wishes you had defended
d. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction.
multae et gravēs causae
many weighty reasons
vir līber aç fortis (Rep. 2.34)
a free and brave man
e. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate clauses.
et . . . et (-que . . . -que)
both . . . and
aut . . . aut
either . . . or
vel . . . vel
either . . . or
[Examples in § 324.e,
below.]
sīve (seu) . . . sīve (seu)
whether . . . or
[Examples in §
324.f, below.]
f. Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force.
nunc . . . nunc
tum . . . tum
iam . . . iam
now . . . now
modo . . . modo
now . . . now
simul . . . simul
at the same time . . . at the same time
quā . . . quā
now . . . now
both
. . . and
[this] and [that] alike
Modo ait modo negat. (Ter. Eun. 714)
Now he says yes, now no.
Simul grātiās agit, simul grātulātur. (Q. C. 6.7.15)
He thanks him and at the same time
congratulates him.
Ērumpunt saepe vitia amīcōrum tum in ipsōs amīcōs tum in aliēnōs. (Lael. 76)
The faults of
friends sometimes break out, now against their friends themselves, now against strangers.
quā marīs quā fēminās (Pl. Mil. 1113)
both males and females
g. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correlatively as conjunctions.
ut [rel.] . . . ita, sīc [dem.]
as (while) . . . so (yet).
tam [dem.] . . . quam [rel.]
so (as) . . . as
cum [rel.] . . . tum (dem)
while . . . so also
not only . . . but also
324. The following conjunctions require notice.
a. Et (and) simply connects words or clauses; -que combines more closely into one connected whole. -que is always enclitic to the word connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected.
cum coniugibus et līberīs
with [their] wives and children
ferrō īgnīque
with fire and sword
[Not as separate things, but as the combined
means of devastation.]
aquā et īgnī interdictus
forbidden the use of water and fire
[In a legal
formula, where they are considered separately.]
b. Atque [(ac) and] adds with some emphasis or with some implied reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable.
omnia honesta atque inhonesta
everything honorable and dishonorable
(too,
without the slightest distinction)
ūsus atque disciplīna
practice and theory beside
(the more important or less
expected)
atque ego crēdō
and yet I believe (for my part)
c. Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of comparison and likeness.
simul atque
as soon as
nōn secus (nōn aliter) ac sī
not otherwise than if
prō eō ac dēbuī
as was my duty
(in accordance as I ought)
aequē ac tū
as much as you
Haud minus ac iussī faciunt.
They do just as they are ordered.
For and not, see § 328.a.
d. Sed and the more emphatic vērum or vērō (but) are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives (not this ... but something else). At (old form ast ) introduces with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense.
Autem (however, now) is the weakest of the adversatives, and often marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atquī (however, now) sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod sī (but if, and if, now if) is used to continue an argument.
Note— Et, -que, and atque (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause continuing the same thought.
Impetum hostēs ferre nōn potuērunt ac terga vertērunt (B. G. 4.35)
The enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.
e. Aut (or) excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of volō) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction is not always observed.
Sed quis ego sumaut quae est in mē facultās (Lael. 17)
But who am I or what special
capacity have I?
[Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]
Aut bibat aut abeat. (Tusc. 5.118)
Let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let
him) quit.
[Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]
Vīta tālis fuit vel fortūnā vel glōriā. (Lael. 12)
His life was such either in respect to
fortune or fame.
(whichever way you look at it)
sī propinquōs habeant imbēcilliōrēs vel animō vel fortūnā (id. 70)
if they have relatives
beneath them either in spirit or in fortune
(in either respect, for example, or in both)
aut deōrum aut rēgum fīliī (id. 70)
sons either of gods or of kings
[Here one
case would exclude the other.]
implicātī vel ūsū diūturnō vel etiam officiīs (id. 85)
entangled either by close intimacy
or even by obligations
[Here the second case might exclude the first.]
f. Sīve (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either ... or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing.
sīve inrīdēns sīve quod ita putāret (De Or. 1.91)
either laughingly or because he really
thought so
sīve deae seu sint volucrēs (Aen. 3.262)
whether they (the Harpies) are goddesses or birds
g. Vel (even, for instance) is often used as an intensive particle with no alternative force.
vel minimus
the very least
h. Nam and namque (for) usually introduce a real reason, formally expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim (for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you) and its negative neque enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea vīta) quae est sōla vīta nōminanda. Nam dum sumus inclūsī in hīs compāgibus
corporis, mūnere quōdam necessitātis et gravī opere perfungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77)
(that life) which alone deserves to be called life. For so long
as we are confined by the body's frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy task; for the soul is from heaven.
Hārum trium sententiārum nūllī prōrsus adsentior. nec enim illa prīma vēra est. (Lael. 57)
I do not agree with any of these three opinions. For of course that first one isn't true.
i. Ergō (therefore) is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur (then, accordingly) is weaker than ergō and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque (therefore, accordingly, and so) is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcircō (for this reason, on this account) is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, sī, ut, nē), and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.
Malum mihi vidētur esse mors. Est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. Certē. Ergō et eī quibus ēvēnit iam ut morerentur et eī quibus ēventūrum est miserī. Mihi
ita vidētur. Nēmō ergō nōn miser. (Tusc. 1.9.)
Death seems to me to be an evil. ‘It is wretched, then, since it is an evil.’ Certainly. ‘Therefore, all those who have
already died and who are to die hereafter are wretched.’ So it appears to me. ‘There is no one, therefore, who is not wretched.’
Quia nātūra mūtārī nōn potest, idcircō vērae amīcitiae sempiternae sunt. (Lael. 32)
Because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friendships are eternal.
j. Autem, enim, and vērō are postpositive;1 also, generally, igitur and often tamen.
k. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes.
at vērō
but in truth
but
surely
still
however
itaque ergō
accordingly then
namque
for
et-enim
for
you
see
for of course
(§ 324.h, above).
For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.
325. In the use of the negative particles,1 the following points are to be observed.
326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative.
Nēmō nōn audiet.
Every one will
hear.
(Nobody will not hear.)
Nōn possum nōn cōnfitērī. (Fam. 9.14.1)
I must confess.
ut . . . nē nōn timēre quidem sine aliquō timōre
possīmus (Mil. 2)
so that we cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear
a. Many compounds or phrases of which nōn is the first part express an indefinite affirmative.
nōn nūllus some
nōn
nūllī (= aliquī) some few
nōn
nihil (= aliquid) something
nōn
nēmō (= aliquot) sundry persons
nōn numquam (= aliquotiēns) sometimes
b. Two negatives of which the second is nōn (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative.
nēmō nōn, nūllus nōn
nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]
[Cf. nōn nēmō not nobody, i.e. somebody]
nihil nōn
everything
[Cf. nōn nihil something]
numquam nōn
never not, i.e. always
[Cf. nōn numquam sometimes]
c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary (Litotes, Glossary: Rhetorical Figures).
nōn semel (= saepissimē)
often enough
(not once)
Nōn haec sine nūmine dīvom ēveniunt (Aen.
2.777)
These things do not occur without the will of the gods.
haec nōn nimis exquīrō (Att. 7.18.3)
not
very much, i.e. very little
Note— Compare nōn nūllus, nōn nēmō, etc., in a. above.
327. A general negation is not destroyed:
Numquam tū nōn modo ōtium, sed nē bellum quidem nisi nefārium concupīstī. (Cat. 1.25)
Not only have you
never desired repose, but you have never desired any war except one which was infamous.
Eaque nesciēbant nec ubi nec quālia
essent. (Tusc. 3.4)
They knew not where or of what kind these things were.
Nequeō satis mīrārī neque conicere.
(Ter. Eun. 547)
I cannot wonder enough nor conjecture.
328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions.
Nūllī (neutrī) crēdō. (not nōn crēdō
ūllī)
I do not believe either.
(I believe neither.)
sine ūllō perīculō (less commonly cum nūllō)
with no danger (without any danger)
Nihil umquam audīvī iūcundius.
I never
heard anything more amusing.
Cf. negō haec esse vēra (dīcō nōn
esse)
I say this is not true. (I deny, etc.)
a. In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly expressed by neque (nec), not by et nōn.
Hostēs terga vertērunt, neque prius fugere dēstitērunt, etc. (B. G. 1.53)
The enemy turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.
Note— Similarly nec quisquam is regularly used for et nēmō; neque ūllus for et nūllus; nec umquam for et numquam; nēve (neu) for et nē.
329. The particle immo (nay) is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather).
Causa igitur nōn bona est? Immo optima. (Att. 9.7.4)
Is the cause then not a good one? On the contrary, the best.
a. Minus (less)—especially with sī (if) or quō (in order that)—and minimē (least), often have a negative force.
sī minus possunt
if they
cannot
[For quō minus, see § 558.b]
Audācissimus ego ex omnibus? Minimē. (Rosc. Am. 2)
Am I the boldest of them all? By no means. (not at all)
330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
Quid est?
What is it?
Ubi sum?
Where am I?
Rogāvit quid esset.
He asked what it
was.
[Direct: Quid est? What is it?]
Nesciō ubi sim.
I do not know where I
am.
[Direct: Ubi sum? Where am I?]
331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English.1
Note— The form of indirect questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of direct; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the subjunctive (§ 574).
332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word
Tūne id veritus es (Q. Fr. 1.3.1)
Did you
fear that?
Hīcine vir usquam nisi in patriā moriētur? (Mil. 104)
Shall this man die anywhere but in his native land?
Is tibi mortemne vidētur aut dolōrem timēre? (Tusc. 5.88)
Does he seem to you to fear death or pain?
a. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted.
Patēre tua cōnsilia nōn sentīs? (Cat. 1.1)
Do you not see that your schemes are manifest?
(you do not see, eh?)
Note— In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.
b. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nōnne, an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer.
Nōnne animadvertis? (N. D. 3.89)
Do you
not observe?
Num dubium est? (Rosc. Am. 107)
There is no doubt, is there?
Note— In indirect questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means simply whether.
c. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nōnne
Meministīne mē in senātū dīcere? (Cat. 1.7)
Don't you remember my saying in the Senate?
Rēctēne interpretor sententiam tuam? (Tusc. 3.37)
Do I not rightly interpret your meaning?
Note 1— This was evidently the original meaning of -ne; but, in most cases the negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no? shades off into eh?
Note 2— The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words.
utrumne
whether
anne
or
Quantane? (Hor. S. 2.3.317)
How big?
Quōne malō (id. 2.3.295)
By what curse?
333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb as in English (§ 152).
Quid exspectās? (Cat. 2.18)
What are you
looking forward to?
Quō igitur haec spectant? (Fam. 6.6.11)
Whither then is all this tending?
Īcare, ubi es (Ov. M. 8.232)
Icarus,
where are you?
Quod vectīgal vōbīs tūtum fuit? Quem socium dēfendistis?
Cui praesidiō classibus vestrīs fuistis? (Manil. 32)
What revenue has been safe for you? What ally have you defended? Whom
have you guarded with your fleets?
Note— A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of the voice.
Quālis vir erat!
What a man he was!
Quot calamitātēs passī sumus!
How many misfortunes we have suffered!
Quō studiō cōnsentiunt! (Cat. 4.15)
With what zeal they unite!
a. The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis.
Quisnam est?
Pray, who is
it?
[quis tandem est? would be stronger.]
Ubinam gentium sumus? (Cat. 1.9)
Where in
the world are we?
In quā tandem urbe hōc disputant? (Mil. 7)
In what city, pray, do they maintain this?
Note— Tandem is sometimes added to verbs.
Ain tandem? (Fam. 9.21)
You don't say so! (say you so, pray?)
Itane tandem Uxōrem dūxit Antiphō. (Ter. Ph.
231)
So then, eh? Antipho's got married.
Double Questions
334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.
335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne (whether), stands in the first member; an, anne (or), annōn, necne (or not), in the second; and usually an in the third, if there is one.
Utrum nescīs, an prō nihilō id putās? (Fam.
10.26)
Is it that you don't know, or do you think nothing of it?
Vōsne L. Domitium an vōs Domitius dēseruit?
(B. C. 2.32)
Did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you?
Quaerō servōsne an līberōs. (Rosc. Am.
74)
I ask whether slaves or free.
Utrum hostem an vōs an fortūnam utrīusque populī īgnōrātis? (Liv. 21.10)
Is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you
do not know?
Note— Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect questions it is commoner than annōn. In poetry -ne . . . -ne sometimes occurs.
a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second.
Gabīniō dīcam anne Pompêiō an utrīque? (Manil. 57)
Shall I say to Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both?
Sunt haec tua verba necne? (Tusc. 3.41)
Are these your words or not?
Quaesīvī ā Catilīnā in conventū apud M. Laecam fuisset necne. (Cat. 2.13)
I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Laeca's or not.
b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne) alone asks the question—usually with indignation or surprise.
An tū miserōs putās illōs? (Tusc. 1.13)
What! Do you think those men wretched?
An iste umquam dē sē bonam spem habuisset, nisi dē vōbīs malam opīniōnem animō imbibisset?
(Verr. 1.1.42)
Would he ever have had good hopes about himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you?
c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative.
Utrum est in clārissimīs cīvibus is, quem, etc.? (Flacc. 45)
Is he among the noblest citizens, whom, etc.?
d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions.
utrum . . . an . . . an
utrum . . . annōn (necne, see § 335, Note, above)
——— . . . an ( anne
-ne . . . an
——— . . . -ne, necne
-ne . . . necne
-ne . . . -ne
Note— From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve).
Quaerō num iniūstē aut improbē fēcerit. (Off. 3.54)
I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly.
Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did.
Question and Answer
336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with nōn or a similar negative.
Valetne? Valet.
Is he well? Yes
(he is well).
Eratne tēcum? Nōn erat.
Was he with you?
No (he was not).
Num quidnam novī? Nihil sānē
There is
nothing new, is there? Oh! nothing.
a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is sometimes used to answer a direct question.
1. For YES:
| vērō in truth, true, no doubt, yes | ita vērō certainly (so in truth), etc. |
| etiam even so, yes, etc. | sānē quidem yes, no doubt, etc. |
| ita so, true, etc. | ita est it is so, true, etc. |
| sānē surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc. | |
| certē certainly, unquestionably, etc. | |
| factum true, it's a fact, you're right, etc. (lit., it was done) | |
2. For NO:
nōn not so
nūllō modō by no means
minimē not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. § 329.a)
minimē vērō no, not by any means, oh! no, etc.
nōn quidem why, no, certainly not, etc.
nōn hercle vērō why, gracious, no! (certainly not, by Hercules!)
Examples are:
Quidnam? An laudātiōnēs? Ita.
Why? What?
Is it eulogies? Just so.
aut etiam aut nōn respondēre (Acad.
2.104)
to answer (categorically) yes or no
Estne ut fertur forma? Sānē (Ter. Eun. 361)
Is she as handsome as they say she is? (Is her beauty as it is said?) Oh! yes.
Miser ergō Archelāus? Certē sī iniūstus (Tusc. 5.35)
Was Archelaus wretched then? Certainly, if he was unjust.
An haec contemnitis? Minimē. (De Or. 2.295)
Do you despise these things? Not at all.
Volucribusne et ferīs? Minimē vērō. (Tusc. 1.104)
To the birds and beasts? Why, of course not.
Ex tuī animī sententiā tū uxōrem habēs? Nōn hercle, ex meī animī sententiā, etc. (De Or.
2.260)
Lord! no, etc.
337. In answering a double question, one member of the alternative, or some part of it, must be repeated.
Vīdistī an dē audītō nūntiās?
Did you see it or are you repeating something you have
heard?
Egomet vīdī.
I saw it myself. (Plaut. Merc. 902)