WORD FORMATION

FORMATION OF WORDS

227. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent, and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, sea nymph, seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of uninflected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which were neither, because they were in fact both; for the distinction between noun stems and verb stems had not yet been made.

After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose. Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjectives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.

Over time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns.

Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of which the Primitive is lost.

Finally, since all conscious word formation is imitative, intermediate steps in derivation were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed.

 

ROOTS AND STEMS

228. Roots¹ are of two kinds:

1. Verbal expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena).
2. Pronominal expressing ideas of position and direction.

From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain particles derived from pronominal roots.

229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them. They are of two classes: (1) Noun stems (including Adjective stems) and (2) Verb stems.

Note— Noun stems and verb stems were not originally different (see § 268), and in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded; but in general they were treated as distinct.

230. Words are formed by inflection: (1) from roots inflected as stems and (2) from derived stems (see § 232).

231. A root used as a stem may appear in the following forms.

a. With a short vowel.

duc-is (dux), DUC
nec-is (nex)
i-s, i-d

So in verbs

es-t
fer-t (cf. § 174.2)

b. With a long vowel. The difference in vowel quantity in the same root (as DŪ˘C) depends on inherited variations (see § 17.a).¹

lūc-is (lūx), LUC
pāc-is (pāx)

So in verbs.

dūc-ō
ī-s for †eis, from eō, īre
fātur from fārī

c. With reduplication.

fur-fur
mar-mor
mur-mur

So in verbs

gi-gnō (root GEN)
si-stō (root STA).

Footnotes

 

DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES

232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems by means of suffixes. There are two kinds of suffixes:

1. Primary added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb stems.
2. Secondary added to a noun stem or an adjective stem.

   Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal roots (§ 228.2), but a few are of doubtful origin.

   Note 1— The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being original (see § 227), is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally ko- (see § 234.2.12 below) primary, as in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but in pudīcus amd aprīcus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary suffix (tolerable, eatable), but also makes forms like clubbable, salable; -some is properly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddlesome, venturesome.

   Note 2— It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will usually be given.

233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by means of primary suffixes are few, because:

1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone(-ly, -some, -ish) meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.
2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus—

A word like mēns, mentis, by the suffix ōn- (nom. -ō), gave mentiō, and this, being divided into men + tiō, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -tiō (as, lēgā-tiō embassy).

A word like audītor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like audītōr-ius, of which the neuter (audītōrium) is used to denote the place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence tōrio- (nom. -tōrium), neuter, becomes a regular noun suffix (§ 250.a).

So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is made starvation, though there is no such word as starvate.

234. The following are examples of primary stem suffixes.

I. Vowel suffixes.

1. o- (m. / n.), ā- (f.), found in nouns and adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declensions.
   

   sonus
   lūdus
   vagus
   toga (root TEG)

2. i-:
   

   ovis
   avis

   in Latin frequently changed:

   rūpēs

   or lost.

   scobs (scobis, root SCAB).

3. u-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i:
   

   suā-vis (for †suādvis, instead of †suā-dus, cf. ἡδύς)
   ten-uis (root TEN in tendō)

   and remaining alone only in nouns of the 4th declension.

   acus (root AK, sharp, in ācer, aciēs, ὠκύς)
   pecū
   genū

II. Suffixes with a consonant.

1. to- (m. / n.), tā-(f.), in the regular perfect passive participle:
   

   tēctus, tēctum

   sometimes with an active sense:

   pōtus, prānsus

   and found in a few words not recognized as participles.

   pūtus (cf. pūrus)
   altus (alō)

2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency.
   

   messis, vestis, pars, mēns

   But in many the i is lost.

3. tu- in abstracts (including Supines), sometimes becoming concretes.
   

   āctus, lūctus

4. no- (m. / n.), nā-(f.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns.
   

   māgnus, plēnus, rēgnum

5. ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives.
   

   īgnis, sēgnis

6. nu- [rare].
   

   manus, pīnus, cornū

7. mo- (mā-), with various meanings.
   

   animus, almus, fīrmus, forma

8. vo- (vā-) (commonly uo-, uā-), with an active or passive meaning.
   

   equus (equos)
   arvum
   cōnspicuus
   exiguus
   vacīvus (vacuus)

9. ro- (rā-).
   

   ager (stem ag-ro-)
   integer (cf. intāctus)
   sacer
   plērī-que (cf. plēnus, plētus)

10. lo- (lā-).
    

    caelum (for †caed-lum)  chisel
    exemplum
    sella (for †sedla)

11. yo- (yā-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives and abstracts, including many of the 1st and 5th declensions.
    

    eximius, audācia, Flōrentia, perniciēs

12. ko- (kā-), sometimes primary.
    

    paucī (cf. παῦρος)
    locus (for stlocus)

    In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem.

    apex, cortex, loquāx

13. en- (on-, ēn-, ōn-), in nouns of agency and abstracts.
    

    aspergō
    compāgē (-ĭnis)
    gerō (-ōnis)

14. men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself.
    

    agmen, flūmen, fulmen.

15. ter- (tor-, tēr-, tōr-, tr-), forming nouns of agency.
    

    pater (i.e. protector)
    frāter (i.e. supporter)
    ōrātor

16. tro-, forming nouns of means.
    

    claustrum (CLAUD)
    mūlctrum (MULG)

17. es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes.
    

    genus (generis)
    tempus (see § 15.4)

    The infinitive in -ere (as in reg-ere) is a Locative of this stem (-er-e for †-es-i).

18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present Active participles:
    

    legēns

    with some adjectives from roots unknown.

    frequēns, recēns

The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the Latin.

235. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called Significant Endings.

They form (1) Nouns of Agency; (2) Abstract Nouns (including names of actions) and (3) Adjectives (active or passive).

Note— There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as nouns (§ 20.b, Note 2).

 

DERIVATION OF NOUNS

Nouns of Agency

236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.

a. Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots or verb stems by means of the suffixes.

By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs.

viā-tor  traveller, from via  way (but cf. the verb inviō)

Note 1— The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the Supine ending -tum (-sum), and is added to the same form of root or verb stem as that ending. The stem-ending is tōr- (§ 234.2.15), which is shortened in the nominative.

Note 2— The feminine form is always -trīx. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, except expulsor (expultrīx) and tōnsor (tōnstrīx).

b. t- (m.) or (f.), added to verb stems makes nouns in -es (-itis; -etis; stem it-, et-) descriptive of a character.

prae-stes, -stitis  guardian
(verb stem from root STA, stāre stand)

teges, -etis  a coverer, a mat
(verb stem tege-, cf.tegō  cover)

pedes, -itis  foot-soldier
(pēs, ped-is  foot, and ī-, root of īre  go)

c. -ō (Genitive -ōnis, stem ōn-) [m.], added to verb stems¹ indicates a person employed in some specific art or trade.

com-bibō  a drinking companion
(root BIB, as in bibō, bibere  drink)

gerō, -ōnis  a carrier
(GES in gerō, gerere  carry)

Note— This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal characteristics (cf. § 255).

Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns

237. Names of Actions are confused, through their terminations, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities), and with concrete nouns denoting means and instrument.

They are also used to express the concrete result of an action (as often in English).

Thus legiō is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body of soldiers collected); cf. levy in English.

238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from roots and verb stems by means of the endings.

a. Added to roots or forms conceived as roots—

Note— Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots.

facinus [from a supposed root FACIN]

b. Apparently added to roots or verb stems.

 

Note 1— -tiō, -tūra, -tus are added to roots or verb stems precisely as -tor, with the same phonetic change (cf. § 236.a, Note 1 above). Hence they are conveniently associated with the supine stem (see § 178). They sometimes form nouns when there is no corresponding verb in use.

senātus  senate (cf. senex)
mentiō  mention (cf. mēns
fētūra  offspring (cf. fētus)
litterātūra  literature (cf. litterae)
cōnsulātus  consulship (cf. cōnsul)

Note 2— Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. § 234.2.3); -iō is a compound formed by adding ōn- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i).

diciō (cf. -dicus and dicis)

-tiō is a compound formed by adding ōn- to stems in ti-.

gradātiō (cf. gradātim)

-tūra is formed by adding -ra, Feminine of -rus, to stems in tu-.

nātūra from nātus
statūra from status (cf. figūra, of like meaning, from a simple u- stem, †figu-s; and mātūrus, Mātūta).

239. Nouns denoting acts , or means and results of acts, are formed from roots or verb stems by the use of the suffixes.

So colu-men (pillar), mō-men (movement), nō-men (name), and flū-men (stream).

-mōnium and -mōnia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other nouns and from adjectives.

sānctimōnia  sanctity (sānctus holy)
mātrimōnium  marriage ( māter mother)

Note— Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. § 234.2.14); -mentum is a compound of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men.

mōmen  movement (Lucr.)
mōmentum (later)

So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns in -men. -mōnium and -mōnia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed from mōn- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-.

almus (stem almo-)  fostering
Almōn (a river near Rome) 
alimōnia  support

But the last was formed directly from alō when -mōnia had become established as a supposed primary suffix.

240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots and verb stems (rarely from noun stems) by means of the neuter suffixes.

Note— -trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§ 234.2.15), with the stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related; -culum is the same as -clum; -bulum contains lo- (§ 234.2.9-10) and -brum is closely related.

a. A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns and adjectives.

241. Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective stems, rarely from noun stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suffixes.

   1. In stems ending in o- or ā- the stem vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-ia) and appears as i before -tās, -tūs, -tia (as in boni-tās, above).

   2. Consonant stems often insert i before -tās:

loquāx (stem loquāc-), loquāci-tās

 BUT
hones-tās
mâies-tās (as if from old adjectives in -es)
ūber-tās
volup-tās

O after i is changed to e.

pius (stem pio-), pie-tās
socius, socie-tās

a. In like manner -dō and -gō (f.) form abstract nouns, but are associated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems.

cupī-dō  desire from cupere to desire
(as if from stem cupī-)

dulcē-dō  sweetness, cf. dulcis sweet
(as if from a stem dulcē-, cf. dulcē-scō)

lumbā-gō  lumbago, cf. lumbus loin
(as if from †lumbō, -āre)

Note— Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234.2.11). -tia is formed by adding -ia to stems with a t suffix:

mīlitia, from mīles (stem mīlit-)
molestia from molestus
clēmentia from clēmēns

whence by analog, mali-tia, avāri-tia. -tās is inherited, but its component parts, tā- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense.

senecta from senex
sēmen-tis from sēmen

-tūs is tū- + ti-, cf. servitū-dō. -dō and -gō appear only with long vowels, as from verb stems, by a false analogy; but -dō is do- + ōn-

cupidus, cupīdō
gravidus, gravēdō (cf. gravē-scō)
albidus, albēdō (cf. albēscō)
formidus  hot, formīdō (cf. formīdulōsus), (hot flash?)  fear

-gō is possibly co- + ōn-; cf. vorāx, vorāgō, but cf. Cethēgus. -tūdō is compounded of -dō with tu- stems, which acquire a long vowel from association with verb stems in u- (cf. volūmen, from volvō):

cōnsuētū-dō, valētū-dō, habitū-dō

whence servitūdō (cf. servitūs, -tūtis).

b. Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices and groups, are formed from noun stems and perhaps from verb stems by means of the suffixes.

Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium

collēg-ium, from collēga

Note— -ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius. It is an inherited primary suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary. -tium is formed like -tia, by adding -ium to stems with t.

exit-ium
equit-ium (cf. exitus, equitēs)

So, by analogy, calvitium and servitium (from calvus, servus).

c. Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are formed from noun stems (confused with verb stems) by means of the suffixes.

For Diminutives and Patronymics, see §§  243-244.

Footnotes

 

DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES

242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb stems).

 

Nominal Adjectives

243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gender, that of the primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns.

They are formed by means of the suffixes -ulus (-a, -um), -olus (after a vowel), -culus, -ellus, -illus

Note 1— These diminutive endings are all formed by adding -lus to various stems. The formation is the same as that of -ulus in § 251 (below). But these words became settled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the diminutives whitish, reddish, bookish and snappish. -culus -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and s-:

iuven-cus
Aurun-cus (cf. Aurunculêius)
prīs-cus

whence the -cu- becomes a part of the termination, and the whole ending (-culus) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and s- stems, in accordance with its origin.

Note 2— Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt.

dēliciolae  little pet
muliercula  a poor (weak) woman
Graeculus  a miserable Greek

a. -ciō, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used with masculines only.

homun-ciō  a dwarf (from homō a man)

244. Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed by adding the suffixes -adēs,-idēs, -īdēs, -eus [m.], -ās, -is, -ēis [f.], to proper names

These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns in Latin.

Atlās: Atlanti-adēs  Mercury;
Atlant-idĕs (Greek plural)  the Pleiads

Scīpiō: Scīpi-adēs  son of Scipio

Tyndareus: Tyndar-idēs  Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus
Tyndar-is  Helen, daughter of Tyndarus

Anchīsēs: Anchīsi-adēs  Æneas, son of Anchises

Thēseus: Thēs-īdēs  son of Theseus

Tȳdeus: Tȳd-īdēs  Diomedes, son of Tydeus

Oīleus: Âiāx Oīl-eus  son of Oileus

Cisseus: Cissē-is  Hecuba, daughter of Cisseus

Thaumās: Thaumant-iās  Iris, daughter of Thaumas

Hesperus: Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), pl.
the daughters of Hesperus, the Hesperides

245. Adjectives meaning full of, prone to , are formed from noun stems with the suffixes -ōsus, -lēns, lentus

246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns by means of the regular participial endings -tus, -ātus, -ītus, ūtus

Note— -ātus, -ītus, -ūtus, imply reference to an imaginary verb stem; -tus is added directly to nouns without any such reference.

247. Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in general made of or belonging to, are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes -eus, -ius,
-āceus, -īcius, āneus (-neus), -ticus

Note— -ius is originally primitive (§ 234.2.11); -eus corresponds to Greek -ειος, -εος, and has lost a y sound (cf. yo-, § 234.2.11); -īcius and -āceus are formed by adding -ius and -eus to stems in ī-c-, ā-c- (suffix ko-, § 234.2.12); -neus is no- + -eus (§ 234.2.4); -āneus is formed by adding -neus to ā- stems; -ticus is a formation with
-cus (cf. hosti-cus with silvā-ticus), and has been affected by the analogy of participial stems in to- (Nominative -tus).

248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from noun stems with the suffixes ālis, āris, ēlis, īlis, ūlis

Note— The suffixes arise from adding -lis (stem li-) to various vowel stems. The long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf. vītā-lis, from vītā-, with rēg-ālis), partly to confusion with verb stems.

Aprīlis (aperīre)
edūlis (edere)
senīlis (senex)

-ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations -āris arises by differentiation for -ālis in words containing an l (as mīlit-āris).

249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by means of the suffixes -ānus, -ēnus, -īnus; -ās, -ēnsis; -cus, -acus (-ācus), -icus;
-eus, -êius, -icius

1. So from common nouns:

2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from :

a. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become nouns.

Note— Of these terminations, -ānus, -ēnus, -īnus are compounded from -nus added to a stem-vowel.

arca, arcānus
collis, collīnus

The long vowels come from a confusion with verb stems (as in plē-nus, fīnī-tus, tribū-tus), and from the noun stem in ā-.

arcānus

A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb stems in ō- and ū-.

colōnus (colō, cf. incola)
patrōnus (cf. patrō, -āre)
tribūnus (cf. tribuō, tribus)
Portūnus (cf. portus)
Vacūna (cf. vacō, vacuus)

250. Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to (especially of places and times ) are formed with the suffixes -ter (-tris), -ester
(-estris), -timus, -nus, -ernus, -urnus, ternus (-turnus)

Note— Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, § 234.2.16) to stems in t- or d-. Thus †pedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy. -nus is an inherited suffix (§ 234.2.4). -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to s- stems:

diur-nus (for †dius-nus)

and hence, by analogy

hodiernus (hodiē)

By an extension of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like paternus and nocturnus.

a. Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes ārius, -tōrius (sōrius)

Note 1— Here -ius (§ 234.2.11) is added to shorter forms in -āris and -or

pecūliārius (from pecūliāris)
bellātōrius (from bellātor).

Note 2— These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see § 254).

 

Verbal Adjectives

251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb stems with the suffixes āx, idus, ulus, vus (uus, īvus, tīvus). -āx denotes a faulty or aggressive tendency;
-tīvus is oftener passive.

Note— Of these, -āx is a reduction of -ācus (stem vowel ā- + -cus), become independent and used with verb stems. Similar forms in -ĕx, -ōx, -īx, and -ūx are found or employed in derivatives.

imbrex  a rain-tile [m.] (from imber)
senex  old (from seni-s)
ferōx  fierce (ferus)
atrōx  savage (āter  black)
celōx  a yacht [f.] (cf. cellō)
fēlīx  happy, originally fertile (cf. fēlō  suck)
fīdūcia confidence (as from †fīdūx)

cf. also victrīx (from victor). So mandūcus chewing (from mandō).

-idus is no doubt denominative.

herbidus  grassy (from herba  herb)
tumidus  swollen (cf. tumu-lus  hill; tumul-tus  uproar)
callidus  tough, cunning (cf. callum  tough flesh)
mūcidus  slimy (cf. mūcus  slime)
tābidus  wasting (cf. tābēs  wasting disease)

But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb stems.

-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb stems.

Cf. aemulus  rivaling (cf. imitor and imāgō)

sēdulus  sitting by, attentive (cf. domi-seda  homestaying, and sēdō  set, settle, hence calm)

pendulus  hanging (cf. pondō, ablative, in weight; perpendiculum,  a plummet; appendix  an addition)

strāgulus  covering (cf. strāgēs)

legulus  a picker (cf. sacri-legus  a picker up of things sacred)

-vus seems originally primary (cf. § 234.2.8), but -īvus and -tīvus have become secondary and are used with nouns.

aestīvus  of summer (from aestus  heat)
tempestīvus  timely (from tempus)

cf. domes-ticus (from domus).

252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities, but occasionally active, are formed by means of the suffixes -ilis, -bilis, -ius, -tilis (-silis)

253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are formed with the suffixes -ndus, -bundus, -cundus

a. -ndus (the same as the Gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflexive adjectives.

b. -bundus, -cundus, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed by the verb.

Note— These must have been originally nominal, as seen in the following.

rubus  red bush
rubidus (but no †rubicus)  ruddy
Rubicōn  Red River (cf. Miniō, a river of Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania)
rubicundus (as in averruncus, homun-culus).

So turba  commotion, turbō a top, turbidus  roily, etc. Cf. apexabō, longabō, gravēdō, dulcēdō.

c. Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek -μενος), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is still discernible.²

Footnotes

 

NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES

254. Many fixed forms of the nominal adjective suffixes mentioned in the preceding sections, make nouns more or less regularly used in particular senses.

1. -ārius person employed about anything.
   

   argent-ārius  silversmith, broker from argentum  silver

   Corinthi-ārius  worker in Corinthian bronze [m.] (sarcastic nickname of Augustus) from (aes) Corinthium  Corinthian bronze

   centōn-ārius  ragman [m.] from centō  patchwork

2. -āria thing connected with something.
   

   argent-āria  bank [f.] from argentum  silver

   arēn-āriae  sandpits [f. pl.] from arēna  sand

   Asin-āria name of a play [f.] from asinus  ass¹

3. -ārium place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning).
   

   aer-ārium  treasury [n.] from aes  copper.

   tepid-ārium  warm bath [n.] from tepidus  warm

   sūd-ārium  a towel [n.] cf. sūdō, -āre  sweat

   sal-ārium  salt money, salary [n.] from sāl  salt

   calendārium  a notebook [n.] from calendae  calends

4. -tōria (-sōria).
   

   Agitā-tōria  The Carter [f.] a play by Plautus from agitātor

   vor-sōria  a tack (nautical) [f.] from vorsus  a turn

5. -tōrium (-sōrium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning).
   

   dēvor-sōrium  an inn [n.] as from dēvortō  turn aside

   audī-tōrium  a lecture hall [n.] as from audiō  hear

   ten-tōrium  a tent [n.] as from tendō  stretch

   tēc-tōrium  plaster [n.] as from tegō, tēctus  cover

   por-tōrium  toll [n.] cf. portō  carry, and portus  harbor

6. -īle animal stall.
   

   bov-īle  cattle-stall [n.] from bōs, bŏvis  ox, cow

   ov-īle  sheepfold [n.] from ovis  sheep (stem ovi-)

7. -al for -āle thing connected with, the primitive.
   

   capit-al  headdress, capital crime [n.] from caput  head

   penetr-āle   inner apartment [n.] cf. penetrō  enter

   Sāturn-ālia  feast of Saturn [n. pl.] (the regular form for the names of festivals) from Sāturnus

8. -ētum [n.] (cf. -ātus, -ūtus, see § 246, Note), -tum place of a thing, especially with names of trees and plants to designate where they grow.
   

   querc-ētum  oak grove [n.] from quercus  oak

   olīv-ētum  olive grove [n.] from olīva  an olive tree

   salic-tum  a willow thicket [n.] from salix  a willow tree

   Argil-ētum  The Clay Pit [n.] from argilla  clay

9. -cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -īcus, in any one of the genders, with various meanings.
   

   vīli-cus  a steward [m.], vīli-ca  a stewardess [f.] from vīlla  farmhouse

   fabr-ica  a workshop [f.] from faber  workman

   am-īcus [m.] am-īca [f.]  friend, cf. amāre  to love

   būbul-cus  ox-tender [m.] from būb-ulus, diminutive; cf. bōs  ox

   cant-icum  song [n.] from cantus  act of singing

   rubr-īca  red paint [f.] from ruber  red

10. -eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings.
    

    alv-eus  a trough [m.] from alvus  the belly

    capr-ea  a wild she-goat [f.] from caper  he-goat

    flamm-eum  a bridal veil [n.] from flamma  flame (from its color)

11. -ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester
    

    eques-ter  knight [m.] for †equet-ter

    sequ-ester  a stake-holder [m.] from a derivative of sequor  follow

    ole-aster  wild olive [m.] from olea  an olive tree

Footnotes

 

IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES

255. The suffix -ō (genitive -ōnis, stem ōn-), usually added to verb stems (see § 236.c), is sometimes used with noun stems to form nouns denoting possessed of. These were originally adjectives expressing quality or character, and hence often appear as proper names.

epulae a feast
epul-ō a feaster 

nāsus a nose
nās-ō with a large nose (also as a proper name) 

volus (in bene-volus) wishing
vol-ōnēs (plural) volunteers

frōns forehead
front-ō big-head (also as a proper name)

cūria a curia
cūri-ō head of a curia (also as a proper name)

restis a rope
resti-ō a rope-maker

a. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used in their compound form.

ad-verb-ium adverb
ad (to) and verbum (verb)
[no intervening †adverbus]

lāti-fund-ium large estate
lātus (wide) and fundus (estate)
[no intervening †lātifundus]

su-ove-taur-īlia a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull
sūs (swine), ovis (sheep), and taurus (bull)
[The primitive would be impossible in Latin, though such formations are common in Sanskrit.]

 

DERIVATION OF VERBS

256. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative.

1. Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech.
2. Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin as a separate language.

257. Derivative Verbs are of two main classes.

1. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives.
2. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs.

 

Denominative Verbs

258. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun and adjective stem.

259.1. Verbs of the 1st Conjugation are formed directly from ā-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning.

fuga  flight
fugāre  put to flight

2. Many verbs of the 1st Conjugation are formed from o- stems, changing the o- into ā-. These are more commonly transitive.

stimulō, -āre  to incite
from stimulus  a good (stem stimulo-)

aequō, -āre  to make even
from aequus  even (stem aequo-)

hībernō, -āre  to pass the winter
from hībernus  of the winter (stem hīberno-)

albō, -āre  to whiten
from albus  white (stem albo-)

piō, -āre  to expiate
from pius  pure (stem pio-)

novō, -āre  to renew
from novus  new (stem novo-)

armō, -āre  to arm
from arma  arms (stem armo-)

damnō, -āre  to injure
from damnum  injury (stem damno-)

3. A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy from consonant and i- or u- stems, adding ā to the stem.¹

vigilō, -āre  to watch
from vigil  awake

exsulō, -āre  to be in exile
from exsul  an exile

auspicor, -ārī  to take the auspices
from auspex (stem auspic-)  augur

pulverō, -āre  to turn (anything) to dust
from pulvis (stem pulver- for pulvis-)  dust

aestuō, -āre  to surge
boil, from aestus (stem aestu-)  tide, seething

levō, -āre  to lighten
from levis (stem levi-)  light

260. A few verbs of the 2nd Conjugation (generally intransitive) are recognizable as formed from noun stems; but most are inherited, or the primitive noun stem is lost.

albeō, -ēre  to be white
from albus (stem (alb^o/_e-)  white

cāneo, -ēre  to be hoary
from cānus (stem (cān^o/_e-)  hoary

clāreō, -ēre  to shine
from clārus  bright

claudeō, -ēre  to be lame
from claudus  lame

algeō, -ēre  to be cold
cf. algidus  cold

261. Some verbs of the 3rd Conjugation in -uō, -uere, are formed from noun stems in u- and have lost a consonant i.

statuō (for †statu-yō), -ere  to set up
from status  position

metuō, -ere  to fear
from metus  fear

acuō, -ere  to sharpen
from acus  needle

arguō, -ere  to clear up
from inherited stem †argu-  bright (cf. ἄργυρος)

Note— Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in u.

fluō, fluere flow
so-lvō (for †sē-luō, cf. λύω), solvere dissolve

Some roots have a parasitic u.

loquor, locūtus  speak

262. Many ī- verbs or verbs of the 4th Conjugation are formed from i-stems.

mōlior, -īrī  to toil
from mōlēs (-is)  mass

fīniō, -īre  to bound
from fīnis  end

sitiō, -īre  to thirst
from sitis  thirst

stabiliō, -īre  to establish
from stabilis  stable

a. Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems.

bulliō, -īre  to boil
from bulla (stem bullā-)  bubble

condiō, -īre  to preserve
from condus (stem condo-)  storekeeper

īnsāniō, -īre  to rave
from īnsānus (stem īnsāno-)  mad

gestiō, -īre  to show wild longing
from gestus (stem gestu-)  gesture

Note— Some of this form are of doubtful origin.

ōrdior  begin, cf. ōrdo and exōrdium

The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -iō of the 3rd conjugation (§ 188).

b. Some are formed with -iō from consonant stems.

cūstōdiō, -īre  to guard
from cūstōs (stem cūstōd-)  guardian

fulguriō, -īre  to lighten
from fulgur  lightning

Note— Here probably belong the so-called desideratives in -uriō (see § 263.4, Note below).

 

Verbs from Other Verbs

263. The following four classes of verbs regularly derived from other verbs have special meanings connected with their terminations.

Note— These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but the formations had become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were often formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun stem.

1. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -scō² to the present stem of verbs. They denote the beginning of an action and are of the 3rd Conjugation. Of some there is no simple verb in existence.
   

   calē-scō  grow warm
   from caleō be  warm

   labā-scō  begin to totter
   from labō  totter

   scī-scō  determine
   from sciō  know

   con-cupī-scō  conceive a desire for
   from cupiō  desire

   alē-scō  grow
   from alō  feed

   So īrā-scor (get angry); cf. īrā-tus.

   iuvenē-scō  grow young
   cf. iuvenis  young man

   mītē-scō  grow mild
   cf. mītis  mild

   vesperā-scit  it is getting late
   cf. vesper  evening

   Note— Inceptives properly have only the Present stem, but many use the Perfect and Supine systems of simple verbs.

   calēscō  grow warm; caluī
   ārdēscō  blaze forth; ārsī
   proficīscor  set out; profectus

2. Intensives or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end in -tō or -itō (rarely -sō). They denote a forcible or repeated action, but this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of the 1st Conjugation end in -itō (not -ātō).
   

   iac-tō  hurl
   from iaciō  throw

   dormī-tō  be sleepy
   from dormiō  sleep

   vol-itō  flit
   from volō  fly

   vēndi-tō  try to sell
   from vēndō  sell

   quas-sō  shatter
   from quatiō  shake

   They are of the 1st conjugation, and are properly denominative.

   a. Compound suffixes -titō -sitō are formed with a few verbs. These are probably derived from other Iteratives: thus, cantitō may come from cantō, iterative of canō (sing).

   b. Another form of Intensives—sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs of practice—ends in -essō (rarely -issō). These denote a certain energy or eagerness of action rather than its repetition.

   cap-essō  lay hold on
   from capiō  take

   fac-essō  do (with energy)
   from faciō  do

   pet-esso, pet-issō  seek (eagerly)
   from petō  seek

   These are of the 3rd conjugation, usually having the perfect and supine of the 4th.

   arcessō, arcessĕre, arcessīvī, arcessītum  summon

   lacessō, lacessĕre, lacessīvī, lacessītum  provoke

   Note— The verbs in -essō, -issō, show the same formation as levāssō, impetrāssere, iūdicāssit, etc. (§ 183.5), but its origin is not fully explained.

3. Diminutives end in -illō, and denote a feeble or petty action.
   

   cav-illor  jest
   cf. cavilla  raillery

   cant-illō  chirp or warble
   from cantō  sing

   Note— Diminutives are formed from verb stems derived from real or supposed diminutive nouns.

4. Desideratives end in -turiō (-suriō), and express longing or wishing. They are of the 4th conjugation, and only two are in common use.
   

   par-turiō  be in labor
   from pariō  bring forth

   ē-suriō (for †ed-turiō)  be hungry
   from edō  eat

   Others are used by the dramatists.

   Note— Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, ēmpturiō (wish to buy) from ēmptor (buyer). Vīsō (go to see) is an inherited desiderative of a different formation.

Footnotes

 

COMPOUND WORDS

264. A compound word is one whose stem is made up of two or more simple stems.

a. A final stem vowel of the first member of the compound usually disappears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant. Only the second member receives inflection.¹

b. Only noun stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, however, often becomes attached to a verb.

265. New stems are formed by Composition in three ways:

1. The second part is simply added to the first.
   

   su-ove-taurīlia  the sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull
   (sūs, ovis, taurus) (cf. § 255.a)

   septen-decim  seventeen
   (septem, decem)

2. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb (Determinative Compounds).
   

   lāti-fundium  a large landed estate
   (lātus, fundus)

   omni-potēns  omnipotent
   (omnis, potēns)

3. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal force (Objective Compounds).
   

   agri-cola  a farmer
   (ager  field, †cola akin to colō  cultivate)

   armi-ger  armor-bearer
   (arma  arms, †ger akin to gerō  carry)

   corni-cen  horn-blower
   (cornū  horn, †cen akin to canō  sing)

   carni-fex  executioner
   (carō  flesh, †fex akin to faciō  make)

  a. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun, may become adjectives, meaning possessed of the quality denoted.

 āli-pēs  wing-footed
(āla  wing, pēs  foot)

 māgn-animus  great-souled
(māgnus  great, animus  soul)

 an-ceps  double
(amb-  at both ends, caput  head)

  Note— Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin.

 

Syntactic Compounds

266. In many apparent compounds, complete words—not stems—have grown together in speech. These are not strictly compounds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntactic Compounds.

a. Compounds of faciō, factō, with an actual or formerly existing noun stem confounded with a verbal stem in ē-. These are causative in force.

cōnsuē-faciō  habituate
(cf. cōnsuē-scō  become accustomed)

cale-faciō, cale-factō  to heat
(cf. calē-scō  grow warm)

b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb.

bene-dīcō  to bless
(bene  well, dīcō  speak)

satis-faciō  to do enough (for)
(satis  enough, faciō  do)

c. Many apparent compounds of stems.

fide-iubeō  to give surety
(fide  surety, iubeō  command)

mān-suētus  tame
(manuī  to the hand, suētus  accustomed)

Mārci-por  slave of Marcus
(Mārcī puer)

Iuppiter  father Jove
(†Iū, old vocative, and pater)

anim-advertō  attend to, punish
(animum advertō)

d. A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns.

prō-cōnsul  proconsul
(for prō cōnsule  instead of a consul)

trium-vir  triumvir
(singular from trium virōrum)

septen-triō  the Bear, a constellation
(supposed singular of septem triōnēs  the Seven Plough-Oxen)

In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united.

267. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a Particle to some other part of speech.

a. Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the prepositions retain their original adverbial sense.

ā, ab AWAY:
ā-mittere  to send away

ad TO, TOWARDS:
af-ferre (ad-ferō)  to bring

ante BEFORE:
ante-ferre  to prefer
ante-cellere  to excel

circum AROUND:
circum-mūnīre  to fortify completely

com-, con- (cum) TOGETHER or FORCIBLY:
cōn-ferre  to bring together
collocāre  to set firm

dē DOWN, UTTERLY:
dē-spicere  despise
dē-struere  destroy

ē, ex OUT:
ef-ferre (ec-ferō)  to carry forth, uplift

in (with verbs) IN, ON, AGAINST:
īn-ferre  to bear against

inter BETWEEN, TO PIECES:
inter-rumpere  to interrupt

ob TOWARDS, TO MEET:
of-ferre  to offer
ob-venīre  to meet

sub UNDER, UP FROM UNDER:
sub-struere  to build beneath
sub-dūcere  to lead up

super UPON, OVER AND ABOVE:
super-fluere  to overflow

Note 1— In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have their ordinary force as prepositions, especially ad, in, circum, trāns, and govern the case of a noun.

trānsīre flūmen  to cross a river (see § 388.b).

Note 2— Short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before two.

faciō, cōnficiō, cōnfectus
iaciō, ēiciō, ēiectus

But long a is retained.

perāctus

b. VERBS are also compounded with the following inseparable particles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin.

amb- (am-, an-) AROUND:
amb-īre  to go about (cf. ἀμφί  about)

dis-, dī- ASUNDER, APART:
dis-cēdere  to depart (cf. duo  two)
dī-vidĕre  to divide

por- FORWARD:
por-tendere  to hold forth, predict (cf. porrō  forth)

red-, re- BACK, AGAIN:
red-īre  to return
re-clūdere  to open (from claudō shut)
re-ficere  to repair (make again)

sēd-, sē- APART:
sē-cernō  to separate
[cf. sēd-itiō  a going apart, secession (eō, īre  to go)]

c. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the verbs to which they correspond.

per-fuga  deserter
cf. per-fugiō

trā-dux  vine-branch
cf. trā-dūcō (trāns-dūcō)

ad-vena  stranger
cf. ad-veniō

con-iux (con-iūnx)  spouse
cf. con-iungō

in-dex  pointer out
cf. in-dīcō

prae-ses  guardian
cf. prae-sideō

com-bibō  boon companion
cf. com-bibō, -ĕre

d. An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix.

1. Of these, per- (less commonly prae-) very; sub- somewhat; in- not, are regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives.

Note— Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs.

per-terreō  terrify
sub-rīdeō  smile

In īgnōscō pardon, in- appears to be the negative prefix.

2. The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective that does not occur alone.

in-ermis  unarmed (cf. arma  arms)
im-bellis  unwarlike (cf. bellum  war)
im-pūnis  without punishment (cf. poena  punishment)
in-teger  untouched, whole (cf. tangō  to touch, root TAG)
in-vītus  unwilling (probably from root seen in vī-s  thou wishest)

Footnotes