ADVERBS

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS

214. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives as follows.

a. From adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declensions by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -ē.

cārē  dearly [from cārus  dear (cāro-)] 
amīcē  like a friend [from amīcus  friendly (amīco-)]

Note— The ending -ē is a relic of an old ablative in -ēd (cf. § 43, Note 1).

b. From adjectives of the 3rd declension by adding -ter to the stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -nst-). All others are treated as i-stems.

fortiter  bravely [from fortis (stem forti-)  brave]
ācriter  eagerly [from ācer (stem ācri-)  eager]
vigilanter  watchfully [from vigilāns (stem vigilant-)] 
prūdenter  prudently [from prūdēns (stem prūdent-)]
aliter  otherwise [from alius (old stem ali-)]

Note— This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek -τερος and in uter, alter. If so, these adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives (cf. d.) or masculine nominatives.

c. Some adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declensions have adverbs of both forms (-ē and -ter). Thus dūrus (hard) has both dūrē and dūriter; miser (wretched) has both miserē and miseriter.

d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb.

multum  much
facilĕ  easily
quid  why

This is the origin of the ending -ius in the comparative degree of adverbs (§ 218).

ācrius  more keenly (positive ācriter)
facilius  more easily (positive facilĕ)

Note— These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (§ 390).

e. The neuter ablative singular or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives, pronouns, and nouns may be used adverbially

falsō  falsely
citŏ  quickly (with shortened o)
rēctā (viā)  straight (straightway)
crēbrē; frequently
volgō  commonly
fortĕ  by chance
spontĕ  of one's own accord

Note— Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use.

abundē  plentifully (as if from †abundus; cf. abundō abound)
saepĕ  often (as if from †saepis  dense, close-packed; cf. saepēs  hedge, and saepiō  hedge in).

215. Further examples of adverbs and other particles which are in origin case forms of nouns or pronouns are given below. In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful.

     1. Neuter Accusative forms.

nōn (for nē-oinom, later ūnum)  not
iterum (comparative of i- stem of is)  a second time
dēmum (superlative of dē down)  at last

     2. Feminine Accusatives.

partim  partly
statim  on the spot
saltim  at least (generally saltem), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis)

     Thus -tim became a regular adverbial termination; and by this means adverbs were made from many noun and verb stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an accusative in -tim.

sēparātim  separately from sēparātus  separate

     Some adverbs that appear to be Feminine Accusative are possibly instrumental.

palam  openly
perperam  wrongly
tam  so
quam  as

     3. Plural Accusatives.

aliās  elsewhere
forās  out of doors (as end of motion)

     So perhaps quia because

     4. Ablative or Instrumental forms

quā  where
intrā  within
extrā  outside
quī  how
aliquī  somehow
forīs  out of doors
quō  whither
adeō  to that degree
ultrō  beyond
citrō  this side (as end of motion)
retrō  back
illōc (for †illō-ce) weakened to illūc  thither

     Those in -trō are from comparative stems (cf. ūls, cis, re-).

     5. Locative forms.

ibi  there
ubi  where
illī, illī-c  there
peregrī (peregrē)  abroad
hīc (for †hī-ce)  here

     Also the compounds hodiē (probably for †hōdiē)  today; perendiē  day after tomorrow.

     6. Of uncertain formation.

a. Those in -tus (usually preceded by i), with an ablative meaning.

funditus  from the bottom, utterly
dīvīnitus  from above, providentially
intus  within
penitus  within

b. Those in -dem, -dam, -dō.

quidem  indeed
quondam  once
quandō (cf. dōnec)  when

c. Those in dum (probably accusative of time) while; iam now

216. A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together into an adverb (cf. notwithstanding, nevertheless, besides).

postmodo  presently (a short time after)
dēnuō (for dē novō)  anew
vidēlicet (for vidē licet)  to wit (see, you may)
nihilōminus  nevertheless (by nothing the less)

Note— Other examples are:

anteā [old antideā]  before (ante eā, probably ablative or instrumental) 
īlicō (in locō)  on the spot, immediately
prōrsus  absolutely (prō vorsus  straight ahead)
rūrsus (re-vorsus)  again
quotannīs  yearly (quot annīs  as many years as there are)
quam-ob-rem  wherefore
cōminus (con manus)  hand to hand
ēminus (ex manus)  at long range
nīmīrum (nī mīrum)  without doubt
ob-viam (as in īre obviam  to go to meet)
prīdem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem)  for some time
forsan (fors an)  perhaps (it's a chance whether)
forsitan (fors sit an)  perhaps (it would be a chance whether)
scīlicet (†scī, licet)  that is to say (know, you may; cf. ī-licet  you may go)
āctūtum (āctū  on the act, and tum  then)

 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS

217. The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows.

a. Adverbs of Place¹

Note— The demonstrative adverbs hīc, ibi, istīc, illīc, and their correlatives, correspond in signification with the pronouns hīc, is, iste, ille (see § 146), and are often equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition

inde = ab eō, etc.

So the relative or interrogative ubi corresponds with quī (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis, sī-cubi with sīquis (see § 147 - § 151, with the table of correlatives in § 152).

ūsque  all the way to
usquam  anywhere
nusquam  nowhere
citrō  to this side
intrō  inwardly
ultrō  beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required)
porrō  further on

quōrsum (for quō vorsum  whither turned?)  to what end?
hōrsum  this way
prōrsum  forward (prōrsus utterly)
intrōrsum  inwardly
retrōrsum  backward
sūrsum  upward
deorsum  downward
seorsum  apart
aliōrsum  another way

b. Adverbs of Time

quandō  when? (interrogative)
cum (quom)  when (relative)
ut  when, as
nunc  now
tunc (tum)  then
mox  presently
iam  already
dum  while
iam diū, iam dūdum, iam prīdem  long ago, long since

prīmum (prīmō)  first
deinde (posteā)  next after
postrēmum (postrēmō)  finally
posteāquam, postquam  when (after that, as soon as)

umquam (unquam)  ever
numquam (nunquam)  never
semper  always

aliquandō  at some time, at length
quandōque (quandōcumque)  whenever
dēnique  at last

quotiēns (quotiēs)  how often
totiēns  so often
aliquotiēns  a number of times

cotīdiē  every day
hodiē  today
herī  yesterday
crās  tomorrow
prīdiē  the day before
postrīdiē  the day after
in diēs  from day to day

nōndum  not yet
necdum  nor yet
vixdum  scarce yet
quam prīmum  as soon as possible
saepe  often
crēbrō  frequently
iam nōn  no longer

c. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause

quam  how, as
tam  so
quamvīs  however much, although
paene  almost
magis  more
valdē  greatly
vix  hardly

cūr, quārē  why
ideō, idcircō, proptereā  on this account, because
eō  therefore
ergō, itaque, igitur  therefore

ita, sīc  so
ut (utī)  as, how
utut, utcumque  however

d. Interrogative Particles

an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num  whether

nōnne, annōn  whether not

numquid, ecquid  whether at all

On the use of Interrogative Particles, see § 332, § 335.

e. Negative Particles

nōn  not (in simple denial)
haud, minimē  not (in contradiction)
nē  not (in prohibition)

nēve, neu  nor
nēdum  much less

nē  lest
neque, nec  nor
nē . . . quidem  not even

nōn modo . . . vērum (sed) etiam  not only . . . but also

nōn modo . . . sed nē . . . quidem  not only not . . . but not even

sī minus  if not
quō minus (quōminus)  so as not

quīn (relative)  but that (interrogative), why not?

nē, nec (in composition)  not (so in nesciō  I know not)
negō  I say no (âiō  I say yes)
negōtium  business (†nec-ōtium)

nēmō (nē- and hemō, old form of homō)  no one
nē quis  lest any one
neque enim  for . . . not

For the use of Negative particles see § 325 ff.

For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see § 320 ff.

Footnotes

 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

218. The Comparative of adverbs is the comparative form of the corresponding adjective, declined in the neuter accusative; the Superlative is the adverb in -ē formed regularly from the superlative of the adjective.

cārē  dearly (cārus  dear)
cārius
cārissimē

miserē [miseriter]  wretchedly (from miser  wretched)
miserius
miserrimē

leviter (from levis  light)
levius
levissimē

audācter [audāciter] (from audāx  bold)
audācius
audācissimē

benĕ  well (from bonus  good)
melius
optimē

malĕ  ill (from malus  bad)
pêius
pessimē

a. The following are irregular or defective.

diū  long (in time)
diūtius
diūtissimē

potius  rather
potissimum  first of all, in preference to all

saepe  often
saepius  oftener, again
saepissimē

satis  enough
satius  preferable

secus  otherwise
sētius  worse

multum (multō)  much
magis  more 
maximē  most

parum  not enough
minus  less
minimē  least

nūper  newly
nūperrimē

temperē  seasonably
temperius

 Note— In poetry the comparative mage is sometimes used instead of magis.